diff --git a/src/iommu/dma.c b/src/iommu/dma.c
index e5b2b488..4c2cb074 100644
--- a/src/iommu/dma.c
+++ b/src/iommu/dma.c
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ int _iommu_map_vaddr(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, void *vaddr, size_t len, uint64_t *i
 	if (flags & IOMMU_MAP_FIXED_IOVA) {
 		_iova = *iova;
 	} else if (ctx->ops.iova_reserve && ctx->ops.iova_reserve(ctx, len, &_iova, flags)) {
-		log_debug("failed to allocate iova\n");
+		log_error("failed to allocate iova\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -169,7 +169,7 @@ int iommu_unmap_vaddr(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, void *vaddr, size_t *len)
 		*len = m->len;
 
 	if (ctx->ops.dma_unmap(ctx, m)) {
-		log_debug("failed to unmap dma\n");
+		log_error("failed to unmap dma\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -196,7 +196,7 @@ int iommu_unmap_all(struct iommu_ctx *ctx)
 {
 	if (ctx->ops.dma_unmap_all) {
 		if (ctx->ops.dma_unmap_all(ctx)) {
-			log_debug("failed to unmap dma\n");
+			log_error("failed to unmap dma\n");
 			return -1;
 		}
 
diff --git a/src/iommu/iommufd.c b/src/iommu/iommufd.c
index 54ff0ea7..7582a5a6 100644
--- a/src/iommu/iommufd.c
+++ b/src/iommu/iommufd.c
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ static int iommu_ioas_update_iova_ranges(struct iommu_ioas *ioas)
 
 	if (ioctl(__iommufd, IOMMU_IOAS_IOVA_RANGES, &iova_ranges)) {
 		if (errno != EMSGSIZE) {
-			log_debug("could not get ioas iova ranges\n");
+			log_error("could not get ioas iova ranges\n");
 			return -1;
 		}
 
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ static int iommu_ioas_update_iova_ranges(struct iommu_ioas *ioas)
 		iova_ranges.allowed_iovas = (uintptr_t)ioas->ctx.iova_ranges;
 
 		if (ioctl(__iommufd, IOMMU_IOAS_IOVA_RANGES, &iova_ranges)) {
-			log_debug("could not get ioas iova ranges\n");
+			log_error("could not get ioas iova ranges\n");
 			return -1;
 		}
 	}
@@ -106,33 +106,33 @@ static int iommufd_get_device_fd(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, const char *bdf)
 
 	vfio_id = pci_get_device_vfio_id(bdf);
 	if (!vfio_id) {
-		log_debug("could not determine the vfio device id for %s\n", bdf);
+		log_error("could not determine the vfio device id for %s\n", bdf);
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/dev/vfio/devices/%s", vfio_id) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	devfd = open(path, O_RDWR);
 	if (devfd < 0) {
-		log_debug("could not open the device cdev\n");
+		log_error("could not open the device cdev\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(devfd, VFIO_DEVICE_BIND_IOMMUFD, &bind)) {
-		log_debug("could not bind device to iommufd\n");
+		log_error("could not bind device to iommufd\n");
 		goto close_dev;
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(devfd, VFIO_DEVICE_ATTACH_IOMMUFD_PT, &attach_data)) {
-		log_debug("could not associate device with ioas\n");
+		log_error("could not associate device with ioas\n");
 		goto close_dev;
 	}
 
 	if (iommu_ioas_update_iova_ranges(ioas)) {
-		log_debug("could not update iova ranges\n");
+		log_error("could not update iova ranges\n");
 		goto close_dev;
 	}
 
@@ -177,7 +177,7 @@ static int iommu_ioas_do_dma_map(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, struct iova_mapping *m)
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(__iommufd, IOMMU_IOAS_MAP, &map)) {
-		log_debug("failed to map\n");
+		log_error("failed to map\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ static int iommu_ioas_do_dma_unmap(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, struct iova_mapping *m
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(__iommufd, IOMMU_IOAS_UNMAP, &unmap)) {
-		log_debug("failed to unmap\n");
+		log_error("failed to unmap\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -243,7 +243,7 @@ static int iommu_ioas_init(struct iommu_ioas *ioas)
 	};
 
 	if (ioctl(__iommufd, IOMMU_IOAS_ALLOC, &alloc_data)) {
-		log_debug("could not allocate ioas\n");
+		log_error("could not allocate ioas\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/iommu/vfio.c b/src/iommu/vfio.c
index f8a53a9c..731a8220 100644
--- a/src/iommu/vfio.c
+++ b/src/iommu/vfio.c
@@ -203,7 +203,7 @@ static int vfio_iommu_type1_iova_reserve(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, size_t len, uint
 	__autolock(&vfio->lock);
 
 	if (!ALIGNED(len, __VFN_PAGESIZE)) {
-		log_debug("len is not page aligned\n");
+		log_error("len is not page aligned\n");
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ static int vfio_iommu_type1_init(struct vfio_container *vfio)
 		return 0;
 
 	if (ioctl(vfio->fd, VFIO_SET_IOMMU, VFIO_TYPE1_IOMMU)) {
-		log_debug("failed to set vfio iommu type\n");
+		log_error("failed to set vfio iommu type\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -241,13 +241,13 @@ static int vfio_iommu_type1_init(struct vfio_container *vfio)
 
 #ifdef VFIO_IOMMU_INFO_CAPS
 	if (vfio_iommu_type1_get_capabilities(vfio)) {
-		log_debug("failed to get iommu capabilities\n");
+		log_error("failed to get iommu capabilities\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 #endif
 
 	if (vfio_iommu_type1_iova_reserve(&vfio->ctx, VFIO_IOMMU_TYPE1_IOVA_RESERVED, &iova, 0x0)) {
-		log_debug("could not reserve iova range\n");
+		log_error("could not reserve iova range\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -271,12 +271,12 @@ static int vfio_group_set_container(struct vfio_group *group, struct vfio_contai
 	log_info("adding group '%s' to container\n", group->path);
 
 	if (ioctl(group->fd, VFIO_GROUP_SET_CONTAINER, &vfio->fd)) {
-		log_debug("failed to add group to vfio container\n");
+		log_error("failed to add group to vfio container\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (vfio_iommu_type1_init(vfio)) {
-		log_debug("failed to configure iommu\n");
+		log_error("failed to configure iommu\n");
 
 		log_fatal_if(ioctl(group->fd, VFIO_GROUP_UNSET_CONTAINER), "unset container\n");
 
@@ -296,18 +296,18 @@ static int vfio_group_open(const char *path)
 
 	fd = open(path, O_RDWR);
 	if (fd < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to open vfio group file: %s\n", strerror(errno));
+		log_error("failed to open vfio group file: %s\n", strerror(errno));
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(fd, VFIO_GROUP_GET_STATUS, &group_status)) {
-		log_debug("failed to get vfio group status\n");
+		log_error("failed to get vfio group status\n");
 		goto close_fd;
 	}
 
 	if (!(group_status.flags & VFIO_GROUP_FLAGS_VIABLE)) {
 		errno = EINVAL;
-		log_debug("vfio group is not viable\n");
+		log_error("vfio group is not viable\n");
 		goto close_fd;
 	}
 
@@ -349,7 +349,7 @@ static int vfio_get_group_fd(struct vfio_container *vfio, const char *path)
 
 	group->fd = vfio_group_open(group->path);
 	if (group->fd < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to open vfio group\n");
+		log_error("failed to open vfio group\n");
 		goto free_group_path;
 	}
 
@@ -375,7 +375,7 @@ static int vfio_get_device_fd(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, const char *bdf)
 
 	group = pci_get_iommu_group(bdf);
 	if (!group) {
-		log_debug("could not determine iommu group for device %s\n", bdf);
+		log_error("could not determine iommu group for device %s\n", bdf);
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -387,7 +387,7 @@ static int vfio_get_device_fd(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, const char *bdf)
 
 	ret_fd = ioctl(gfd, VFIO_GROUP_GET_DEVICE_FD, bdf);
 	if (ret_fd < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to get device fd\n");
+		log_error("failed to get device fd\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -417,13 +417,13 @@ static int vfio_iommu_type1_do_dma_map(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, struct iova_mappin
 	}
 
 	if (!ALIGNED(((uintptr_t)m->vaddr | m->len | m->iova), __VFN_PAGESIZE)) {
-		log_debug("vaddr, len or iova not page aligned\n");
+		log_error("vaddr, len or iova not page aligned\n");
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(vfio->fd, VFIO_IOMMU_MAP_DMA, &dma_map)) {
-		log_debug("could not map\n");
+		log_error("could not map\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -447,7 +447,7 @@ static int vfio_iommu_type1_do_dma_unmap(struct iommu_ctx *ctx, struct iova_mapp
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(vfio->fd, VFIO_IOMMU_UNMAP_DMA, &dma_unmap)) {
-		log_debug("could not unmap\n");
+		log_error("could not unmap\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -485,7 +485,7 @@ static int vfio_iommu_type1_do_dma_unmap_all(struct iommu_ctx *ctx)
 	};
 
 	if (ioctl(vfio->fd, VFIO_IOMMU_UNMAP_DMA, &dma_unmap)) {
-		log_debug("failed to unmap dma\n");
+		log_error("failed to unmap dma\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -510,17 +510,17 @@ static int vfio_init_container(struct vfio_container *vfio)
 {
 	vfio->fd = open("/dev/vfio/vfio", O_RDWR);
 	if (vfio->fd < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to open vfio device\n");
+		log_error("failed to open vfio device\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (ioctl(vfio->fd, VFIO_GET_API_VERSION) != VFIO_API_VERSION) {
-		log_debug("invalid vfio version\n");
+		log_error("invalid vfio version\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (!ioctl(vfio->fd, VFIO_CHECK_EXTENSION, VFIO_TYPE1_IOMMU)) {
-		log_debug("vfio type 1 iommu not supported\n");
+		log_error("vfio type 1 iommu not supported\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/nvme/core.c b/src/nvme/core.c
index 1a6091dd..d5431895 100644
--- a/src/nvme/core.c
+++ b/src/nvme/core.c
@@ -82,14 +82,14 @@ static int nvme_configure_cq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize, int vec
 	dstrd = NVME_FIELD_GET(cap, CAP_DSTRD);
 
 	if (qid && qid > ctrl->config.ncqa + 1) {
-		log_debug("qid %d invalid; max qid is %d\n", qid, ctrl->config.ncqa + 1);
+		log_error("qid %d invalid; max qid is %d\n", qid, ctrl->config.ncqa + 1);
 
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (qsize < 2) {
-		log_debug("qsize must be at least 2\n");
+		log_error("qsize must be at least 2\n");
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -113,7 +113,7 @@ static int nvme_configure_cq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize, int vec
 	len = __pgmapn(&cq->vaddr, qsize, 1 << NVME_CQES, &opaque);
 
 	if (_iommu_map_vaddr(__iommu_ctx(ctrl), cq->vaddr, len, &cq->iova, 0x0, opaque)) {
-		log_debug("failed to map vaddr\n");
+		log_error("failed to map vaddr\n");
 
 		__pgunmap(cq->vaddr, len, opaque);
 		return -1;
@@ -130,7 +130,7 @@ static void nvme_discard_cq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, struct nvme_cq *cq)
 		return;
 
 	if (iommu_unmap_vaddr(__iommu_ctx(ctrl), cq->vaddr, &len))
-		log_debug("failed to unmap vaddr\n");
+		log_error("failed to unmap vaddr\n");
 
 	__pgunmap(cq->vaddr, len, cq->vaddr_opaque);
 
@@ -154,14 +154,14 @@ static int nvme_configure_sq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize,
 	dstrd = NVME_FIELD_GET(cap, CAP_DSTRD);
 
 	if (qid && qid > ctrl->config.nsqa + 1) {
-		log_debug("qid %d invalid; max qid is %d\n", qid, ctrl->config.nsqa + 1);
+		log_error("qid %d invalid; max qid is %d\n", qid, ctrl->config.nsqa + 1);
 
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (qsize < 2) {
-		log_debug("qsize must be at least 2\n");
+		log_error("qsize must be at least 2\n");
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ static int nvme_configure_sq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize,
 
 	if (_iommu_map_vaddr(__iommu_ctx(ctrl), sq->pages.vaddr, len, &sq->pages.iova, 0x0,
 		sq->pages.vaddr_opaque)) {
-		log_debug("failed to map vaddr\n");
+		log_error("failed to map vaddr\n");
 		goto unmap_pages;
 	}
 
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ static int nvme_configure_sq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize,
 		goto free_sq_rqs;
 
 	if (_iommu_map_vaddr(__iommu_ctx(ctrl), sq->vaddr, len, &sq->iova, 0x0, sq->vaddr_opaque)) {
-		log_debug("failed to map vaddr\n");
+		log_error("failed to map vaddr\n");
 		goto unmap_sq;
 	}
 
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ static int nvme_configure_sq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize,
 	free(sq->rqs);
 unmap_pages:
 	if (iommu_unmap_vaddr(__iommu_ctx(ctrl), sq->pages.vaddr, (size_t *)&len))
-		log_debug("failed to unmap vaddr\n");
+		log_error("failed to unmap vaddr\n");
 
 	__pgunmap(sq->pages.vaddr, len, sq->pages.vaddr_opaque);
 
@@ -275,12 +275,12 @@ static int nvme_configure_adminq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, unsigned long sq_flags)
 	struct nvme_sq *sq = &ctrl->sq[NVME_AQ];
 
 	if (nvme_configure_cq(ctrl, NVME_AQ, NVME_AQ_QSIZE, 0)) {
-		log_debug("failed to configure admin completion queue\n");
+		log_error("failed to configure admin completion queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (nvme_configure_sq(ctrl, NVME_AQ, NVME_AQ_QSIZE, cq, sq_flags)) {
-		log_debug("failed to configure admin submission queue\n");
+		log_error("failed to configure admin submission queue\n");
 		goto discard_cq;
 	}
 
@@ -315,7 +315,7 @@ int nvme_create_iocq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize, int vector)
 	uint16_t iv = 0;
 
 	if (nvme_configure_cq(ctrl, qid, qsize, vector)) {
-		log_debug("could not configure io completion queue\n");
+		log_error("could not configure io completion queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -357,7 +357,7 @@ int nvme_create_iosq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize, struct nvme_cq
 	union nvme_cmd cmd;
 
 	if (nvme_configure_sq(ctrl, qid, qsize, cq, flags)) {
-		log_debug("could not configure io submission queue\n");
+		log_error("could not configure io submission queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -390,12 +390,12 @@ int nvme_delete_iosq(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid)
 int nvme_create_ioqpair(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize, int vector, unsigned long flags)
 {
 	if (nvme_create_iocq(ctrl, qid, qsize, vector)) {
-		log_debug("could not create io completion queue\n");
+		log_error("could not create io completion queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (nvme_create_iosq(ctrl, qid, qsize, &ctrl->cq[qid], flags)) {
-		log_debug("could not create io submission queue\n");
+		log_error("could not create io submission queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -405,12 +405,12 @@ int nvme_create_ioqpair(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid, int qsize, int vector,
 int nvme_delete_ioqpair(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, int qid)
 {
 	if (nvme_delete_iosq(ctrl, qid)) {
-		log_debug("could not delete io submission queue\n");
+		log_error("could not delete io submission queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (nvme_delete_iocq(ctrl, qid)) {
-		log_debug("could not delete io completion queue\n");
+		log_error("could not delete io completion queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -436,7 +436,7 @@ static int nvme_wait_rdy(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, unsigned short rdy)
 
 	do {
 		if ((uint64_t)_time_ns > deadline_ns) {
-			log_debug("timed out\n");
+			log_error("timed out\n");
 
 			errno = ETIMEDOUT;
 			return -1;
@@ -553,14 +553,14 @@ int nvme_init(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, const char *bdf, const struct nvme_ctrl_op
 		memcpy(&ctrl->opts, &nvme_ctrl_opts_default, sizeof(*opts));
 
 	if (pci_device_info_get_ull(bdf, "class", &classcode)) {
-		log_debug("could not get device class code\n");
+		log_error("could not get device class code\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	log_info("pci class code is 0x%06llx\n", classcode);
 
 	if ((classcode & 0xffff00) != 0x010800) {
-		log_debug("%s is not an NVMe device\n", bdf);
+		log_error("%s is not an NVMe device\n", bdf);
 		errno = EINVAL;
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -573,7 +573,7 @@ int nvme_init(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, const char *bdf, const struct nvme_ctrl_op
 
 	ctrl->regs = vfio_pci_map_bar(&ctrl->pci, 0, 0x1000, 0, PROT_READ | PROT_WRITE);
 	if (!ctrl->regs) {
-		log_debug("could not map controller registersn\n");
+		log_error("could not map controller registersn\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -595,14 +595,14 @@ int nvme_init(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, const char *bdf, const struct nvme_ctrl_op
 	ctrl->config.mqes = NVME_FIELD_GET(cap, CAP_MQES);
 
 	if (nvme_reset(ctrl)) {
-		log_debug("could not reset controller\n");
+		log_error("could not reset controller\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	/* map admin queue doorbells */
 	ctrl->doorbells = vfio_pci_map_bar(&ctrl->pci, 0, 0x1000, 0x1000, PROT_WRITE);
 	if (!ctrl->doorbells) {
-		log_debug("could not map doorbells\n");
+		log_error("could not map doorbells\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -611,12 +611,12 @@ int nvme_init(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, const char *bdf, const struct nvme_ctrl_op
 	ctrl->cq = znew_t(struct nvme_cq, ctrl->opts.ncqr + 2);
 
 	if (nvme_configure_adminq(ctrl, 0x0)) {
-		log_debug("could not configure admin queue\n");
+		log_error("could not configure admin queue\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (nvme_enable(ctrl)) {
-		log_debug("could not enable controller\n");
+		log_error("could not enable controller\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -633,7 +633,7 @@ int nvme_init(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, const char *bdf, const struct nvme_ctrl_op
 		NVME_FIELD_SET(ctrl->opts.ncqr, FEAT_NRQS_NCQR));
 
 	if (nvme_admin(ctrl, &cmd, NULL, 0, &cqe)) {
-		log_debug("could not set number of queues\n");
+		log_error("could not set number of queues\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -658,7 +658,7 @@ int nvme_init(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, const char *bdf, const struct nvme_ctrl_op
 
 	ret = nvme_admin(ctrl, &cmd, vaddr, len, NULL);
 	if (ret) {
-		log_debug("could not identify\n");
+		log_error("could not identify\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/nvme/util.c b/src/nvme/util.c
index 9d9ca5e9..8db5eb90 100644
--- a/src/nvme/util.c
+++ b/src/nvme/util.c
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ int nvme_sync(struct nvme_ctrl *ctrl, struct nvme_sq *sq, union nvme_cmd *sqe, v
 			do_unmap = true;
 
 			if (_iommu_map_vaddr(ctx, buf, len, &iova, IOMMU_MAP_EPHEMERAL, opaque)) {
-				log_debug("failed to map vaddr\n");
+				log_error("failed to map vaddr\n");
 				return -1;
 			}
 		}
diff --git a/src/pci/util.c b/src/pci/util.c
index fcef5cc0..e340fe7b 100644
--- a/src/pci/util.c
+++ b/src/pci/util.c
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ int pci_unbind(const char *bdf)
 	ssize_t ret;
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/sys/bus/pci/devices/%s/driver/unbind", bdf) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ int pci_bind(const char *bdf, const char *driver)
 	ssize_t ret;
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/sys/bus/pci/drivers/%s/bind", driver) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -85,12 +85,12 @@ int pci_driver_new_id(const char *driver, uint16_t vid, uint16_t did)
 	ssize_t ret;
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/sys/bus/pci/drivers/%s/new_id", driver) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (asprintf(&id, "%x %x", vid, did) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		free(path);
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -110,12 +110,12 @@ int pci_driver_remove_id(const char *driver, uint16_t vid, uint16_t did)
 	ssize_t ret;
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/sys/bus/pci/drivers/%s/remove_id", driver) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (asprintf(&id, "%x %x", vid, did) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		free(path);
 		return -1;
 	}
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ int pci_device_info_get_ull(const char *bdf, const char *prop, unsigned long lon
 	ssize_t ret;
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/sys/bus/pci/devices/%s/%s", bdf, prop) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ char *pci_get_driver(const char *bdf)
 
 	if (asprintf(&link, "/sys/bus/pci/devices/%s/driver", bdf) < 0) {
 		link = NULL;
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
@@ -173,7 +173,7 @@ char *pci_get_driver(const char *bdf)
 		if (errno == ENOENT)
 			goto out;
 
-		log_debug("failed to resolve driver link\n");
+		log_error("failed to resolve driver link\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
@@ -181,13 +181,13 @@ char *pci_get_driver(const char *bdf)
 
 	p = strrchr(driver, '/');
 	if (!p) {
-		log_debug("failed to determine driver name\n");
+		log_error("failed to determine driver name\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
 	if (asprintf(&name, "%s", p + 1) < 0) {
 		name = NULL;
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
@@ -204,7 +204,7 @@ char *pci_get_iommu_group(const char *bdf)
 	ssize_t ret;
 
 	if (asprintf(&link, "/sys/bus/pci/devices/%s/iommu_group", bdf) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
@@ -212,7 +212,7 @@ char *pci_get_iommu_group(const char *bdf)
 
 	ret = readlink(link, group, PATH_MAX - 1);
 	if (ret < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to resolve iommu group link\n");
+		log_error("failed to resolve iommu group link\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
@@ -220,7 +220,7 @@ char *pci_get_iommu_group(const char *bdf)
 
 	p = strrchr(group, '/');
 	if (!p) {
-		log_debug("failed to find iommu group number\n");
+		log_error("failed to find iommu group number\n");
 		goto out;
 	}
 
@@ -244,13 +244,13 @@ char *pci_get_device_vfio_id(const char *bdf)
 	DIR *dp;
 
 	if (asprintf(&path, "/sys/bus/pci/devices/%s/vfio-dev", bdf) < 0) {
-		log_debug("asprintf failed\n");
+		log_error("asprintf failed\n");
 		return NULL;
 	}
 
 	dp = opendir(path);
 	if (!dp) {
-		log_debug("could not open directory; is %s bound to vfio-pci?\n", bdf);
+		log_error("could not open directory; is %s bound to vfio-pci?\n", bdf);
 		return NULL;
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/vfio/device.c b/src/vfio/device.c
index fa8206b0..d02a73fd 100644
--- a/src/vfio/device.c
+++ b/src/vfio/device.c
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ int vfio_set_irq(struct vfio_device *dev, int *eventfds, int count)
 
 	if (!(dev->irq_info.flags & VFIO_IRQ_INFO_EVENTFD)) {
 		errno = EINVAL;
-		log_debug("device irq does not support eventfd\n");
+		log_error("device irq does not support eventfd\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ int vfio_set_irq(struct vfio_device *dev, int *eventfds, int count)
 	free(irq_set);
 
 	if (ret) {
-		log_debug("failed to set device irq\n");
+		log_error("failed to set device irq\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -74,7 +74,7 @@ int vfio_disable_irq(struct vfio_device *dev)
 	ret = ioctl(dev->fd, VFIO_DEVICE_SET_IRQS, &irq_set);
 
 	if (ret) {
-		log_debug("failed to disable device irq\n");
+		log_error("failed to disable device irq\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
diff --git a/src/vfio/pci.c b/src/vfio/pci.c
index 72f674b4..0eb1bdd8 100644
--- a/src/vfio/pci.c
+++ b/src/vfio/pci.c
@@ -34,14 +34,14 @@ static int pci_set_bus_master(struct vfio_pci_device *pci)
 	uint16_t pci_cmd;
 
 	if (vfio_pci_read_config(pci, &pci_cmd, sizeof(pci_cmd), PCI_COMMAND) < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to read pci config region\n");
+		log_error("failed to read pci config region\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	pci_cmd |= PCI_COMMAND_MASTER;
 
 	if (vfio_pci_write_config(pci, &pci_cmd, sizeof(pci_cmd), PCI_COMMAND) < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to write pci config region\n");
+		log_error("failed to write pci config region\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -58,7 +58,7 @@ static int vfio_pci_init_bar(struct vfio_pci_device *pci, int idx)
 	};
 
 	if (ioctl(pci->dev.fd, VFIO_DEVICE_GET_REGION_INFO, &pci->bar_region_info[idx])) {
-		log_debug("failed to get bar region info\n");
+		log_error("failed to get bar region info\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -76,14 +76,14 @@ static int vfio_pci_init_irq(struct vfio_pci_device *pci)
 	do {
 		if (irq_index < 0) {
 			errno = EINVAL;
-			log_debug("no supported irq types\n");
+			log_error("no supported irq types\n");
 			return -1;
 		}
 
 		pci->dev.irq_info.index = irq_index--;
 
 		if (ioctl(pci->dev.fd, VFIO_DEVICE_GET_IRQ_INFO, &pci->dev.irq_info)) {
-			log_debug("failed to get device irq info\n");
+			log_error("failed to get device irq info\n");
 			return -1;
 		}
 	} while (!pci->dev.irq_info.count);
@@ -132,14 +132,14 @@ int vfio_pci_open(struct vfio_pci_device *pci, const char *bdf)
 
 	pci->dev.fd = pci->dev.ctx->ops.get_device_fd(pci->dev.ctx, bdf);
 	if (pci->dev.fd < 0) {
-		log_debug("failed to get device fd\n");
+		log_error("failed to get device fd\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	pci->dev.device_info.argsz = sizeof(struct vfio_device_info);
 
 	if (ioctl(pci->dev.fd, VFIO_DEVICE_GET_INFO, &pci->dev.device_info)) {
-		log_debug("failed to get device info\n");
+		log_error("failed to get device info\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -151,7 +151,7 @@ int vfio_pci_open(struct vfio_pci_device *pci, const char *bdf)
 	};
 
 	if (ioctl(pci->dev.fd, VFIO_DEVICE_GET_REGION_INFO, &pci->config_region_info)) {
-		log_debug("failed to get config region info\n");
+		log_error("failed to get config region info\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
@@ -161,12 +161,12 @@ int vfio_pci_open(struct vfio_pci_device *pci, const char *bdf)
 	}
 
 	if (pci_set_bus_master(pci)) {
-		log_debug("failed to set pci bus master\n");
+		log_error("failed to set pci bus master\n");
 		return -1;
 	}
 
 	if (vfio_pci_init_irq(pci)) {
-		log_debug("failed to initialize irq\n");
+		log_error("failed to initialize irq\n");
 		return -1;
 	}