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Attribution Reporting API with Aggregatable Reports

Table of Contents

Authors

Introduction

This document proposes extensions to our existing Attribution Reporting API that reports event-level data. The intention is to provide a mechanism for rich metadata to be reported in aggregate, to better support use-cases such as campaign-level performance reporting or conversion values.

Goals

Aggregatable attribution reports should support legitimate measurement use cases not already supported by the event-level reports. These include:

  • Higher fidelity measurement of attribution-trigger (conversion-side) data, which is very limited in event-level attribution reports, including the ability to sum values rather than just counts
  • A system which enables the most robust privacy protections
  • Ability to receive aggregatable reports alongside event-level reports
  • Ability to receive data at a faster rate than with event-level reports
  • Greater flexibility to trade off attribution-trigger (conversion-side) data, reporting rate and accuracy.

Note: fraud detection (enabling the filtration of reports you are not expecting) is a goal but it is left out of scope for this document for now.

API changes

The client API for creating contributions to an aggregate report uses the same API base as for event level reports with a few extensions. In the following example an ad-tech will use the API to collect:

  • Aggregate conversion counts at a per-campaign level
  • Aggregate purchase values at a per geo level

Attribution source registration

Registering sources eligible for aggregate reporting entails adding a new aggregation_keys dictionary field to the JSON dictionary of the Attribution-Reporting-Register-Source header:

{
  ... // existing fields, such as `source_event_id` and `destination`

  "aggregation_keys": {
    // Generates a "0x159" key piece (low order bits of the key) for the key named
    // "campaignCounts".
    "campaignCounts": "0x159", // User saw ad from campaign 345 (out of 511)

    // Generates a "0x5" key piece (low order bits of the key) for the key named "geoValue".
    "geoValue": "0x5" // Source-side geo region = 5 (US), out of a possible ~100 regions
  },

  "aggregatable_report_window": "86400"
}

This defines a dictionary of named aggregation keys, each with a piece of the aggregation key defined as a hex-string. The final histogram bucket key will be fully defined at trigger time using a combination (binary OR) of this piece and trigger-side pieces.

Final keys will be restricted to a maximum of 128 bits. This means that hex strings in the JSON must be limited to at most 32 digits.

There is also a new optional field, aggregatable_report_window, which is the duration in seconds after source registration during which aggregatable reports may be created for this source.

Attribution trigger registration

Trigger registration will also add two new fields to the JSON dictionary of the Attribution-Reporting-Register-Trigger header:

{
  ... // existing fields, such as `event_trigger_data`

  "aggregatable_trigger_data": [
    // Each dict independently adds pieces to multiple source keys.
    {
      // Conversion type purchase = 2 at a 9 bit offset, i.e. 2 << 9.
      // A 9 bit offset is needed because there are 511 possible campaigns, which
      // will take up 9 bits in the resulting key.
      "key_piece": "0x400",
      // Apply this key piece to:
      "source_keys": ["campaignCounts"]
    },
    {
      // Purchase category shirts = 21 at a 7 bit offset, i.e. 21 << 7.
      // A 7 bit offset is needed because there are ~100 regions for the geo key,
      // which will take up 7 bits of space in the resulting key.
      "key_piece": "0xA80",
      // Apply this key piece to:
      "source_keys": ["geoValue", "nonMatchingKeyIdsIgnored"]
    }
  ],
  "aggregatable_values": {
    // Each source event can contribute a maximum of L1 = 2^16 to the aggregate
    // histogram. In this example, use this whole budget on a single trigger,
    // evenly allocating this "budget" across two measurements. Note that this
    // will require rescaling when post-processing aggregates!

    // 1 count =  L1 / 2 = 2^15
    "campaignCounts": 32768,

    // Purchase was for $52. The site's max value is $1024.
    // $1 = (L1 / 2) / 1024.
    // $52 = 52 * (L1 / 2) / 1024 = 1664
    "geoValue": 1664
  }
}

The aggregatable_trigger_data field is a list of dict which generates aggregation keys.

The aggregatable_values field lists an amount of an abstract "value" to contribute to each key, which can be integers in [1, 216]. These are attached to aggregation keys in the order they are generated. See the contribution budgeting section for more details on how to allocate these contribution values.

The scheme above will generate the following abstract histogram contributions:

[
// campaignCounts
{
  key: 0x559, // = 0x159 | 0x400
  value: 32768
},
// geoValue:
{
  key: 0xA85, // = 0x5 | 0xA80
  value: 1664
}]

Note: the above scheme was used to maximize the contribution budget and optimize utility in the face of constant noise. To rescale, simply inverse the scaling factors used above:

L1 = 1 << 16
true_agg_campaign_counts = raw_agg_campaign_counts / (L1 / 2)
true_agg_geo_value = 1024 * raw_agg_geo_value / (L1 / 2)

Note: The filters field will still apply to aggregatable reports, and each dict in aggregatable_trigger_data can still optionally have filters applied to it just like for event-level reports.

Note: The aggregatable_values field may also be specified as a list of dictionaries, where each dictionary contains a dictionary values of key-value pairs as outlined above as well as optional filters and not_filters fields, allowing trigger registrations to customize how values are contributed to keys depending on source filter data. If multiple list entries have filters that match the source's filters, only the first entry and its corresponding values will be used.

For example:

{
  ...,
  "aggregatable_values": [
    {
      "values": {
        "campaignCounts": 32768,
        "geoValue": 1664
      },
      "filters": {"source_type": ["navigation"]}
    }
  ]
}

Trigger registration will accept an optional field aggregatable_deduplication_keys which will be used to deduplicate multiple triggers containing the same deduplication_key for a single source with selective filtering.

{
  ...
  "aggregatable_deduplication_keys": [
    {
      "deduplication_key": "[unsigned 64-bit integer]",
      "filters": {"source_type": ["navigation"]}
    }
  ]
}

The browser will create aggregatable reports for a source only if the trigger's aggregatable_deduplication_key has not already been associated with an aggregatable report for that source.

Note that aggregatable trigger registration is independent of event-level trigger registration.

Aggregatable reports

Aggregatable reports will look very similar to event-level reports. They will be reported via HTTP POST to the reporting origin at the path .well-known/attribution-reporting/report-aggregate-attribution.

The report itself does not contain histogram contributions in the clear. Rather, the report embeds them in an encrypted payload that can only be read by a trusted aggregation service known by the browser.

The report will be JSON encoded with the following scheme:

{
  // Info that the aggregation services also need encoded in JSON
  // for use with AEAD.
  "shared_info": "{\"api\":\"attribution-reporting\",\"attribution_destination\":\"https://advertiser.example\",\"report_id\":\"[UUID]\",\"reporting_origin\":\"https://reporter.example\",\"scheduled_report_time\":\"[timestamp in seconds]\",\"source_registration_time\":\"[timestamp in seconds]\",\"version\":\"[api version]\"}",

  // Support a list of payloads for future extensibility if multiple helpers
  // are necessary. Currently only supports a single helper configured
  // by the browser.
  "aggregation_service_payloads": [
    {
      "payload": "[base64-encoded HPKE encrypted data readable only by the aggregation service]",
      "key_id": "[string identifying public key used to encrypt payload]",

      // Optional debugging information, if cookie-based debugging is allowed.
      "debug_cleartext_payload": "[base64-encoded unencrypted payload]",
    },
  ],

  // The deployment option for the aggregation service.
  "aggregation_coordinator_origin": "https://publickeyservice.msmt.aws.privacysandboxservices.com",

  // Optional debugging information (also present in event-level reports),
  // if cookie-based debugging is allowed.
  "source_debug_key": "[64 bit unsigned integer]",
  "trigger_debug_key": "[64 bit unsigned integer]",

  // Optional trigger context ID.
  "trigger_context_id": "example string"
}

Reports will not be delayed to the same extent as they are for event level reports. The browser will delay them with a random delay between 0 to 10 minutes, or with a small delay after the browser next starts up. The browser is free to utilize techniques like retries to minimize data loss.

  • The shared_info will be a serialized JSON object. This exact string is used as authenticated data for decryption, see below. The string therefore must be forwarded to the aggregation service unmodified. The reporting origin can parse the string to access the encoded fields.

  • The api field is a string enum identifying the API that triggered the report. This allows the aggregation service to extend support to other APIs in the future.

  • The scheduled_report_time will be the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch (1970-01-01T00:00:00Z, ignoring leap seconds) to align with DOMTimestamp until the browser initially scheduled the report to be sent (to avoid noise around offline devices reporting late).

  • The source_registration_time will represent (in seconds since the Unix Epoch) the time the source event was registered, rounded down to a whole day.

  • The payload will contain the actual histogram contributions. It should be be encrypted and then base64 encoded, see below.

Optional debugging fields are discussed below.

Encrypted payload

The payload should be a CBOR map encrypted via HPKE and then base64 encoded. The map will have the following structure:

// CBOR
{
  "operation": "histogram",  // Allows for the service to support other operations in the future
  "data": [{
    "bucket": <bucket, encoded as a 16-byte (i.e. 128-bit) big-endian bytestring>,
    "value": <value, encoded as a 4-byte (i.e. 32-bit) big-endian bytestring>,
    // k is equal to the value `aggregatable_filtering_id_max_bytes`, defaults to 1 (i.e. 8-bit).
    "id": <filtering ID, encoded as a k-byte big-endian bytestring, defaults to 0>
  }, ...]
}

The browser may encode multiple contributions in the same payload; this is only possible if all other fields in the report/payload are identical for the contributions. To avoid revealing the number of contributions in the payload through its encrypted size, the browser should pad the list of payloads with 'null' (zero value) contributions up to the maximum. In the future, a more direct padding scheme could be considered.

This encryption should use AEAD to ensure that the information in shared_info is not tampered with, since the aggregation service will need that information to do proper replay protection. The authenticated data will consist of the shared_info string (encoded as UTF-8) with a constant prefix added for domain separation, i.e. to avoid ciphertexts being reused for different protocols, even if public keys are shared.

The encryption will use public keys specified by the aggregation service. The browser will encrypt payloads just before the report is sent by fetching the public key endpoint (the aggregation service coordinator origin at the path /.well-known/aggregation-service/v1/public-keys) with an un-credentialed request. The processing origin will respond with a set of keys which will be stored according to standard HTTP caching rules, i.e. using Cache-Control headers to dictate how long to store the keys for (e.g. following the freshness lifetime). The browser could enforce maximum/minimum lifetimes of stored keys to encourage faster key rotation and/or mitigate bandwidth usage. The scheme of the JSON encoded public keys is as follows:

{
  "keys": [
    {
      "id": "[arbitrary string identifying the key (up to 128 characters)]",
      "key": "[base64 encoded public key]"
    },
    // Optionally, more keys.
  ]
}

Note: The version in the .well-known path may be updated in the future versions of the spec if the public key serving details change, especially in a backwards incompatible way.

To limit the impact of a single compromised key, multiple keys (up to a small limit) can be provided. The browser should independently pick a key uniformly at random for each payload it encrypts to avoid associating different reports. Additionally, a public key endpoint should not reuse an ID string for a different key. In particular, IDs must be unique within a single response to be valid. In the case of backwards incompatible changes to this scheme (e.g. in future versions of the API), the endpoint URL should also change.

Note: The browser may need some mechanism to ensure that the same set of keys are delivered to different users.

Optional: transitional debugging reports

Attribution-success debugging reports

If debugging is enabled, additional debug fields will be present in aggregatable reports. The source_debug_key and trigger_debug_key fields match those in the event-level reports. If both the source and trigger debug keys are set, there will be a debug_cleartext_payload field included in the report. It will contain the base64-encoded cleartext of the encrypted payload to allow downstream systems to verify that reports are constructed correctly. If both debug keys are set, the shared_info will also include the flag "debug_mode": "enabled" to allow the aggregation service to support debugging functionality on these reports.

Additionally, a duplicate debug report will be sent immediately (i.e. without the random delay) to a .well-known/attribution-reporting/debug/report-aggregate-attribution endpoint. The debug reports should be almost identical to the normal reports, including the additional debug fields. However, the payload ciphertext will differ due to repeating the encryption operation and the key_id may differ if the previous key had since expired or the browser randomly chose a different valid public key.

Verbose debugging reports

As outlined in the event-level explainer, certain aggregate attribution failures can be monitored as well.

Contribution bounding and budgeting

Each attribution can make multiple contributions to an underlying aggregate histogram, and a given user can trigger multiple attributions for a particular source / trigger site pair. Our goal in this section is to bound the contributions any source event can make to a histogram.

This bound is characterized by a single parameters: L1, the maximum sum of the contributions (values) across all buckets for a given source event. L1 refers to the L1 sensitivity / norm of the histogram contributions per source event.

Exceeding these limits will cause future contributions to silently drop.
While exposing failure in any kind of error interface can be used to leak sensitive information, we might be able to reveal aggregate failure results via some other monitoring side channel in the future.

For the initial proposal, set L1 = 65536. Note that for privacy, this parameter can be arbitrary, as noise in the aggregation service will be scaled in proportion to this parameter. In the example above, the budget is split equally between two keys, one for the number of conversions per campaign and the other representing the conversion dollar value per geography. This budgeting mechanism is highly flexible and can support many different aggregation strategies as long as the appropriate scaling is performed on the outputs.

The browser also applies a limit on the number of contributions within a single report.

Strawman: There should be a limit of 20 contributions per aggregatable report.

Storage limits

The browser may apply storage limits in order to prevent excessive resource usage.

Strawman: There should be a limit of 1024 pending aggregatable reports per destination site.

Note: The storage limits for event-level and aggregatable reports are enforced independently of each other.

Hide the true number of attribution reports

The presence or absence of an attribution report leaks some potentially sensitive cross-site data in the current design. Therefore, revealing the total count of reports to the reporting origin could leak something sensitive as well (imagine if the reporting origin only ever registered a conversion or impression for a single user).

To hide the true number of reports, the browser will add noise to the number of reports by randomly sending noisy null reports for some fraction of trigger registrations. Null reports will not check or affect rate limits.

As a lot of the cross site information is embedded in the source registration time, trigger registration will accept an optional field aggregatable_source_registration_time to allow developers to specify whether to exclude or include source_registration_time field within shared_info in the aggregatable report. The null report rate will need to be higher if source_registration_time is present in the aggregatable report.

{
   ...,
   "aggregatable_trigger_data": ...,
   "aggregatable_values": ...,
   "aggregatable_source_registration_time": "exclude" // or "include", defaults to "exclude" if not present
}

Strawman: There should be ~0.05 reports (in expectation) sent for trigger registrations that exclude the source_registration_time field, and ~0.25 reports for those that include this field.

In order to limit abuse of the protections above, there will be a maximum limit of 20 aggregatable reports per source.

Optional: reduce report delay with trigger context ID

Trigger registration will accept an optional string field trigger_context_id, a high-entropy ID that represents the data associated with the trigger.

{
  ..., // existing fields
  "trigger_context_id": "example string" // max length 64
}

This ID will be embedded unencrypted in the aggregatable report.

To avoid leaking cross-site information through the count of reports with the given ID, the browser will unconditionally send an aggregatable report on every trigger registration with a trigger context ID. A null report will be sent in the case that the trigger registration did not generate an attribution report. The source registration time will always be excluded from the aggregatable report with a trigger context ID.

As the trigger context ID in the aggregatable report explicitly reveals the association between the report and the trigger, these reports can be sent immediately without delay.

Note: This is an alternative considered for report verification, and achieves all of the higher priority security goals. A similar design was proposed for the Private Aggregation API for the purpose of report verification.

Optional: flexible contribution filtering with filtering IDs

Trigger registration's aggregatable_values's values can be integers or dictionaries with an optional filtering_id field.

{
  ..., // existing fields
  "aggregatable_filtering_id_max_bytes": 2, // defaults to 1
  "aggregatable_values": {
    "campaignCounts": 32768,
    "geoValue": {
      "value": 1664,
      "filtering_id": "23" // must fit within <aggregatable_filtering_id_max_bytes> bytes
    }
  }
}

These IDs will be included in the encrypted aggregatable report payload contributions.

Queries to the aggregation service can provide a list of allowed filtering IDs and all contributions with non-allowed IDs will be filtered out.

The filtering IDs need to be unsigned integers limited to a small number of bytes, (1 byte = 8 bits) by default. We limit the size of the ID space to prevent unnecessarily increasing the payload size and thus storage and processing costs.

This size can be increased via the aggregatable_filtering_id_max_bytes field. To avoid amplifying a counting attack due to the resulting different payload size, the browser will unconditionally send an aggregatable report on every trigger registration with a non-default (greater than 1) max bytes. A null report will be sent in the case that the trigger registration did not generate an attribution report. The source registration time will always be excluded from the aggregatable report with a non-default max bytes. This behavior is the same as when a trigger context ID is set.

See flexible_filtering.md for more details.

Optional: named budgets

Named budgets is an optional feature that gives API callers the ability to manage L1 contribution budget distribution across different types of attributions, addressing common challenges such as:

  • Allocating the privacy budget between different types of attributions (e.g., biddable vs. non-biddable).
  • Distributing the budget across multiple product categories to prevent any single product category from consuming all available privacy budget.

Source registrations will accept an optional field named_budgets, which is a dictionary used to set the maximum contribution for each named budget for this source.

{
  ..., // existing fields
  "named_budgets": {
    "budgetName1": 32768,  // Max contribution budget for budgetName1.
    "budgetName2": 32768   // Max contribution budget for budgetName2.
  }
}

Trigger registrations will accept an optional field named_budgets, which will be used to select the named budget for the generated aggregatable report.

{
  ..., // existing fields
  "named_budgets": [
    {
      "name": "budgetName1",
      "filters": {"source_type": ["navigation"]}
    }
  ]
}

The first named budget from the trigger that matches the source's filter data will be selected. If there is no budget name specified or no matching filters, the L1 contribution budget will still be applied.

When generating an aggregatable report, in addition to performing the current L1 budget limit check, the contributions for the report will be checked against the available budget with the selected budget name, if applicable. If the budget is insufficient, the aggregatable report will not be generated.

Data processing through a Secure Aggregation Service

The exact design of the service is not specified here. We expect to have more information on the data flow from reporter → processing origins shortly, but what follows is a high-level summary.

As the browser sends individual aggregatable reports to the reporting origin, the reporting origin organizes them into batches. The adtech can then send these batches to the aggregation service.

The aggregation service will aggregate reports within a certain batch, and respond back with a summary report (aggregate histogram), i.e. a list of keys with associated aggregate values. It is expected that as a privacy protection mechanism, a certain amount of noise will be added to each output key's aggregate value.

Currently the aggregation service can be deployed on Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Google Cloud Platform (GCP). We expect to support other cloud providers in the future. See the Public Cloud TEE requirements explainer for more details.

Trigger registration will accept an optional string field aggregation_coordinator_origin to allow developers to specify the deployment option for the aggregation service supported by the browser, e.g. the origin for the aggregation service deployed on AWS, GCP, and other platforms in the future.

{
  ..., // existing fields
  "aggregation_coordinator_origin": "https://publickeyservice.msmt.aws.privacysandboxservices.com",
}

See allowlist of the aggregation service coordinator origins.

Privacy considerations

This proposal introduces a new set of reports to the API. Alone they do not add much meaningful cross-site information, so they are fairly benign. However, they contain encrypted payloads which allow aggregate histograms to be computed.

These histograms should be protected with various techniques with a trusted server system. For example, it is expected that the histograms will be subject to noise proportional to the L1 budget. Additionally, most rate-limits (except for the maximum number of reports per source) used for event-level reports will also be enforced for aggregatable reports, which limit the total amount of information that can be sent out for any one user.

Servers will need to be implemented such that browsers can trust them with sensitive cross-site data. There are various technologies and techniques that could be employed (e.g. Trusted Execution Environments, Multi-party-computation, audits, etc) that could satisfy browsers that data is safely aggregated and the output maintains proper privacy.

Differential Privacy

A goal of this work is to have a framework which can support differentially private aggregate measurement. In principle this can be achieved if the aggregation service adds noise proportional to the L1 budget in principle, e.g. noise distributed according to Laplace(L1/epsilon) should achieve epsilon differential privacy. With small enough values of epsilon, reports for a given source will be well-protected in an aggregate release.

Note: there are a few caveats about a formal differential privacy claim:

  • The scope of privacy in the current design is not user-level, but per-source. See More advanced contribution bounding for follow-up work exploring tightening this.

  • Our plan is to adjust the level of noise added based on feedback during the origin trial period, and our goal with this initial version is to create a foundation for further exploration into formally private methods for aggregation.

    Rate limits

    Various rate limits outlined in the event-level explainer should also apply to aggregatable reports. The limits should be shared across all types of reports.

Ideas for future iteration

Worklet-based aggregation key generation

At trigger time, we could have a worklet-style API that allows passing in an arbitrary string of “trigger context” that specifies information about the trigger event (e.g. high fidelity data about a conversion). From within the worklet, code can access both the source and trigger context in the same function to generate an aggregate report. This allows for more dynamic keys than a declarative API (like the existing HTTP-based triggering), but disallows exfiltrating sensitive cross-site data out of the worklet.

The worklet is used to generate histogram contributions, which are key-value pairs of integers. Note that there will be some maximum number of keys (e.g. 2^128 keys).

The following code triggers attribution by invoking a worklet.

await window.attributionReporting.worklet.addModule(
  "https://reporter.example/convert.js");

// The first argument should match the origin of the module we are invoking, and
// determines the scope of attribution similar to the existing HTTP-based API,
// i.e. it should match the "attributionreportto" attribute.
// The last argument needs to match what AggregateAttributionReporter uses upon
// calling registerAggregateReporter
window.attributionReporting.triggerAttribution("https://reporter.example", 
  <triggerContextStr>, "my-aggregate-reporter");

Internally, the browser will look up to see which source should be attributed, similar to how attribution works in the HTTP-based API. Note here that only a single source will be matched.

Here is convert.js which crafts an aggregate report.

class AggregateAttributionReporter {
  // attributionSourceContext set as "<campaignid>,<geoid>"
  processAggregate(triggerContext, attributionSourceContext, sourceType) {
    let [campaign, geo] = attributionSourceContext.split(',').map(
        x => parseInt(x, 10))
    
    let purchaseValue = parseInt(triggerContext, 10)
    
    histogramContributions = [
      {key: campaign, value: purchaseValue},
      {key: geo, value: purchaseValue},
    ];
    return {
      histogramContributions: histogramContributions,
    }
  }
}

// Bound classes will be invoked when an attribution triggered on this document
// is successfully attributed to a source whose reporting origin matches the
// worklet origin.
registerAggregateReporter("my-aggregate-reporter", AggregateAttributionReporter);

This worklet approach provides greatly enhanced flexibility at the cost of complexity. It introduces a new security / privacy boundary, and there are several edge cases that must be handled carefully to avoid data loss (e.g. the document being destroyed while the worklet is processing, unless a keepalive-style mode for worklets is introduced). These issues must be solved before this design could be considered.

Custom attribution models

The worklet based scheme possibly allows for more flexible attribution options, including specifying partial “credit” for multiple previous attribution sources that would provide value to advertisers that are interested in attribution models other than last-touch.

We should be careful in allowing reports to include cross site information from multiple sites, as it could increase the risk of cross site tracking.

More advanced contribution bounding

We might want to consider bounding contribution at levels other than the source event level in the future for more robust privacy protection. For instance, we could bound user contributions per trigger event, or even by {source site, destination site, day} for a more user-level bound.

This would likely come at the cost of some utility and complexity, as budgeting across multiple source events may not be straightforward.

Additionally, there are more sophisticated techniques that can optimize utility and privacy if we bound more than just the L1 norm of the aggregate histogram. For instance, we could impose a stricter Linf bound (i.e. bounding the contribution to any one bucket). Care should be taken to ensure that either:

  • A proper compromise is met across various use-cases
  • We can support multiple types of contribution bounding for different reporting origins without introducing privacy leaks

See issue 249 for more details.

Choosing among aggregation services

The server can add an optional alternative_aggregation_mode string field:

Attribution-Reporting-Register-Trigger: {..., "aggregatable_trigger_data": ..., "aggregatable_values": ..., "alternative_aggregation_mode": "experimental-poplar"}

The optional field will allow developers to choose among different options for aggregation infrastructure supported by the user agent. This value will allow experimentation with new technologies, and allows us to try out new approaches without interfering with core functionality provided by the default option. The "experimental-poplar" option will implement a protocol similar to poplar VDAF in the PPM Framework.

Considered alternatives

“Count” vs. “value” histograms

There are some use-cases which require something close to binary input (i.e. counting conversions), and other conversions which require summing in some discretized domain (e.g. summing conversion value).

For simplicity in this API we are treating these exactly the same. Count-based approaches could do something like submitting two possible values, 0 for 0 and MAX_VALUE for 1, and consider the large space to be just a discretized domain of fractions between 0 and 1.

This has the benefit of keeping the aggregation infrastructure generic and avoids the need to “tag” different reports with whether they represent a coarse-grained or fine-grained value.

In the end, we will use this MAX_VALUE to scale noise via computing the sensitivity of the computation, so submitting “1” for counts will yield more noise than otherwise expected.

Binary report format

A binary report format like CBOR could streamline AEAD authentication by passing raw bytes directly to the reporting origin, which could be passed through directly to an aggregation service. This design would avoid parsing / serialization errors in constructing authenticated data necessary to decrypt the payload.

However, binary formats are not as familiar to developers, so there is an ergonomics tradeoff to be made here.