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article 1 Chi full.html
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<title>Neanderthals (Chif)</title>
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<center><h1>Neanderthals</h1></center>
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Relatively recent
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>archaeological</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">archaeological <br/><br/>考古學的<br/></span></span></a>
finds have brought about a
considerable change in perception about the <a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>Neanderthals</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover"> Neanderthal <br/><br/>尼安德塔爾人 <br/></span></span></a>
. Neanderthals had previously been characterized more as<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong> primitive</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">primitive<br/><br/>原始的；早期的；遠古的<br/></span></span></a>
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong> grunting</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover"> grunting<br/><br/>(豬）發出呼嚕聲<br/></span></span></a>
beasts than as intelligent and compassionate human ancestors. However, evidence suggests that they may have exhibited more learned
skills and social compassion than had previously been thought.<br/><br/>
The Neanderthals lived during a period that extended from at
least 40,000 to 100,000 years ago in a variety of environments ranging from relatively warm and dry to extremely cold areas.
The Neanderthals differed from modern man in that they had a stronger and heavier
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>skeleton</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">skeleton<br/><br/>骨骼；骨架<br/></span></span></a>and facial structure with a more projecting
brow, a broader nose, and larger teeth. Casts made of Neanderthal brains by archeologists show little difference in size from <u><strong>those</strong></u>
of modern man.<br/>
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It has been known for some time that Neanderthals were rather
skilled stone<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong> artisans</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">artisan<br/><br/>工匠；手藝人<br/></span></span></a>
. They are best known for their production of stone tools, which included a large number of
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>scrapers</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">scraper<br/><br/>刮刀<br/></span></span></a>
and pointed <a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>implements</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">implement<br/><br/>工具；器具<br/></span></span></a>.
The techniques that the Neanderthals used to prepare these tools demonstrated a clear and important technological advance
over their predecessors. Edges of their stone tools have been studied under microscopes for evidence of how the tools may have been
used. Many of the tools seem to have been used for working with wood, both for
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>hacking</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">hack<br/><br/>砍；切；劈<br/></span></span></a>
at large branches and for doing more detailed
work on smaller pieces; other tools were clearly used to prepare food, both meat and vegetables; still others, which resemble many of
today's <a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>suede</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">suede<br/><br/>絨面革；（仿）麂皮<br/></span></span></a>
and leather tools, were used to work with animal skins.
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A clearer <u><strong>picture</strong></u> of Neanderthals has come about recently
as archeologists have determined that, in addition to the known ability to develop and employ tools in a rather skilled way,
Neanderthals also exhibited evidence of beliefs and social
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>rituals</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">ritual<br/><br/>儀式<br/></span></span></a>
, aspects of life that were newly introduced by Neanderthals and
that provide evidence of humanlike thoughts and feelings. Neanderthal
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><u><strong>cemeteries</strong></u></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">cemetery<br/><br/>（尤指不靠近教堂的）公墓；墓地<br/></span></span></a>
have been discovered in places like La Ferrassie in
France and Shanidar in Iraq; Neanderthal remains in these cemeteries have provided proof of social organization and ritual in the
Neanderthals. One skeleton of a Neanderthal was found with a crushed
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>skull</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">skull<br/><br/>頭（蓋）骨；顱骨<br/></span></span></a>
; the blow on the top of the head, perhaps from a falling
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>boulder</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">boulder<br/><br/>巨石<br/></span></span></a>
, had quite obviously been the cause of death. What was interesting was that study of the skeleton showed that while he had
been alive this man had been seriously handicapped with a defect that had limited use of the upper right side of his body, that he
suffered from <a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>arthritis</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">arthritis<br/><br/>關節炎<br/></span></span></a>
, and that he was blind in one eye. The fact that he had survived well into old age was a strong indication
that others had been helping to care for him and to provide him with food rather than allowing him to die because he was no longer
<u><strong>fit</strong></u>. Other skeletal remains of Neanderthals show clear examples of burial rituals. <strong>Another skeleton of a grown male was found surrounded
by <a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins>pollen</ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">pollen<br/><br/>花粉<br/></span></span></a>
from eight different flowers, including ancestors of today's
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins>hyacinth</ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">hyacinth<br/><br/>風信子，洋水仙<br/></span></span></a>
,
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins>bachelor's button</ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">bachelor's button<br/><br/>矢車菊<br/></span></span></a>
and <a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins>hollyhock</ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">hollyhock<br/><br/>蜀葵<br/></span></span></a>
; experts are convinced
that the flowers could not have been growing, in the cave where they were found and that they had been arranged around the body in a
burial ritual.</strong> In a different Neanderthal cemetery, a young child was found buried with a deposit of
<a class="hideDisplay"><font color="blue"><ins><strong>ibex</strong></ins></font>
<span class="showDisplayOnHover"><span class="showBodyOfDisplayOnHover">ibex<br/><br/>羱羊<br/></span></span></a>
horns laid out with the
body. These discoveries about Neanderthals help to create a picture of Neanderthals as beings with the feelings and emotions that
go along with developed social customs and rituals. <br/>
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