diff --git a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/aggregation.rs b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/aggregation.rs
index fed501b622..ec5301c72b 100644
--- a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/aggregation.rs
+++ b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/aggregation.rs
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ impl AggregationIsmMetadataBuilder {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl MetadataBuilder for AggregationIsmMetadataBuilder {
-    #[instrument(err, skip(self))]
+    #[instrument(err, skip(self), ret)]
     async fn build(
         &self,
         ism_address: H256,
diff --git a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/base.rs b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/base.rs
index 9fb65902e6..74449d10ee 100644
--- a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/base.rs
+++ b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/base.rs
@@ -41,6 +41,7 @@ pub enum MetadataBuilderError {
     MaxDepthExceeded(u32),
 }
 
+#[derive(Debug)]
 pub struct IsmWithMetadataAndType {
     pub ism: Box<dyn InterchainSecurityModule>,
     pub metadata: Option<Vec<u8>>,
@@ -224,7 +225,7 @@ impl MessageMetadataBuilder {
         }
     }
 
-    #[instrument(err, skip(self), fields(destination_domain=self.destination_domain().name()))]
+    #[instrument(err, skip(self), fields(destination_domain=self.destination_domain().name()), ret)]
     pub async fn build_ism_and_metadata(
         &self,
         ism_address: H256,
diff --git a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/routing.rs b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/routing.rs
index c51cd69baf..c16fbc2a2d 100644
--- a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/routing.rs
+++ b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/metadata/routing.rs
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ pub struct RoutingIsmMetadataBuilder {
 
 #[async_trait]
 impl MetadataBuilder for RoutingIsmMetadataBuilder {
-    #[instrument(err, skip(self))]
+    #[instrument(err, skip(self), ret)]
     async fn build(
         &self,
         ism_address: H256,
diff --git a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_message.rs b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_message.rs
index 7d0c4072e3..1bfabeded1 100644
--- a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_message.rs
+++ b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_message.rs
@@ -6,12 +6,11 @@ use std::{
 
 use async_trait::async_trait;
 use derive_new::new;
-use ethers::utils::hex;
 use eyre::Result;
 use hyperlane_base::{db::HyperlaneRocksDB, CoreMetrics};
 use hyperlane_core::{
     BatchItem, ChainCommunicationError, ChainResult, HyperlaneChain, HyperlaneDomain,
-    HyperlaneMessage, Mailbox, TryBatchAs, TxOutcome, TxSubmissionData, H256, U256,
+    HyperlaneMessage, Mailbox, MessageSubmissionData, TryBatchAs, TxOutcome, H256, U256,
 };
 use prometheus::{IntCounter, IntGauge};
 use tracing::{debug, error, info, instrument, trace, warn};
@@ -22,7 +21,7 @@ use super::{
     pending_operation::*,
 };
 
-const CONFIRM_DELAY: Duration = if cfg!(any(test, feature = "test-utils")) {
+pub const CONFIRM_DELAY: Duration = if cfg!(any(test, feature = "test-utils")) {
     // Wait 5 seconds after submitting the message before confirming in test mode
     Duration::from_secs(5)
 } else {
@@ -58,7 +57,7 @@ pub struct PendingMessage {
     #[new(default)]
     submitted: bool,
     #[new(default)]
-    submission_data: Option<Box<TxSubmissionData>>,
+    submission_data: Option<Box<MessageSubmissionData>>,
     #[new(default)]
     num_retries: u32,
     #[new(value = "Instant::now()")]
@@ -159,7 +158,7 @@ impl PendingOperation for PendingMessage {
         if is_already_delivered {
             debug!("Message has already been delivered, marking as submitted.");
             self.submitted = true;
-            self.next_attempt_after = Some(Instant::now() + CONFIRM_DELAY);
+            self.set_next_attempt_after(CONFIRM_DELAY);
             return PendingOperationResult::Confirm;
         }
 
@@ -245,7 +244,7 @@ impl PendingOperation for PendingMessage {
             }
         }
 
-        self.submission_data = Some(Box::new(TxSubmissionData {
+        self.submission_data = Some(Box::new(MessageSubmissionData {
             metadata,
             gas_limit,
         }));
@@ -259,7 +258,6 @@ impl PendingOperation for PendingMessage {
             return;
         }
 
-        debug!("Getting submission_data");
         let state = self
             .submission_data
             .take()
@@ -291,7 +289,7 @@ impl PendingOperation for PendingMessage {
             // Provider error; just try again later
             // Note: this means that we are using `NotReady` for a retryable error case
             self.inc_attempts();
-            self.on_reprepare()
+            PendingOperationResult::NotReady
         });
 
         if !self.is_ready() {
@@ -314,8 +312,6 @@ impl PendingOperation for PendingMessage {
                 submission=?self.submission_outcome,
                 "Message successfully processed"
             );
-            self.submitted = true;
-            self.reset_attempts();
             PendingOperationResult::Success
         } else {
             if let Some(outcome) = &self.submission_outcome {
@@ -329,7 +325,7 @@ impl PendingOperation for PendingMessage {
             }
             warn!(
                 tx_outcome=?self.submission_outcome,
-                message_id=hex::encode(self.message.id()),
+                message_id=?self.message.id(),
                 "Transaction attempting to process message either reverted or was reorged"
             );
             self.on_reprepare()
diff --git a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_operation.rs b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_operation.rs
index 4e4f10f808..206e062e2a 100644
--- a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_operation.rs
+++ b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/pending_operation.rs
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ pub enum PendingOperationResult {
     Reprepare,
     /// Do not attempt to run the operation again, forget about it
     Drop,
-    /// todo
+    /// Send this message straight to the confirm queue
     Confirm,
 }
 
diff --git a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/serial_submitter.rs b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/serial_submitter.rs
index 87f96a993c..5cb85d34ff 100644
--- a/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/serial_submitter.rs
+++ b/rust/agents/relayer/src/msg/serial_submitter.rs
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@ use hyperlane_core::{
     MpmcReceiver, TxOutcome,
 };
 
+use crate::msg::pending_message::CONFIRM_DELAY;
 use crate::server::MessageRetryRequest;
 
 use super::op_queue::{OpQueue, QueueOperation};
@@ -211,11 +212,10 @@ async fn prepare_task(
                 PendingOperationResult::Success => {
                     debug!(?op, "Operation prepared");
                     metrics.ops_prepared.inc();
-                    // this send will pause this task if the submitter is not ready to accept yet
+                    // TODO: push multiple messages at once
                     submit_queue.push(op).await;
                 }
                 PendingOperationResult::NotReady => {
-                    // none of the operations are ready yet, so wait for a little bit
                     prepare_queue.push(op).await;
                 }
                 PendingOperationResult::Reprepare => {
@@ -246,7 +246,6 @@ async fn submit_task(
     metrics: SerialSubmitterMetrics,
 ) {
     let recv_limit = max_batch_size as usize;
-    // looping is not an issue because `recv_many` will sleep if the channel is empty
     loop {
         let mut batch = submit_queue.pop_many(recv_limit).await;
 
@@ -258,7 +257,7 @@ async fn submit_task(
             }
             std::cmp::Ordering::Equal => {
                 let op = batch.pop().unwrap();
-                submit_and_confirm_op(op, &mut confirm_queue, &metrics).await;
+                submit_single_operation(op, &mut confirm_queue, &metrics).await;
             }
             std::cmp::Ordering::Greater => {
                 OperationBatch::new(batch, domain.clone())
@@ -270,7 +269,7 @@ async fn submit_task(
 }
 
 #[instrument(skip(confirm_queue, metrics), ret, level = "debug")]
-async fn submit_and_confirm_op(
+async fn submit_single_operation(
     mut op: QueueOperation,
     confirm_queue: &mut OpQueue,
     metrics: &SerialSubmitterMetrics,
@@ -309,7 +308,17 @@ async fn confirm_task(
                 metrics.clone(),
             )
         });
-        join_all(futures).await;
+        let op_results = join_all(futures).await;
+        if op_results.iter().all(|op| {
+            matches!(
+                op,
+                PendingOperationResult::NotReady | PendingOperationResult::Confirm
+            )
+        }) {
+            // None of the operations are ready, so wait for a little bit
+            // before checking again to prevent burning CPU
+            sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await;
+        }
     }
 }
 
@@ -319,19 +328,19 @@ async fn confirm_operation(
     prepare_queue: OpQueue,
     confirm_queue: OpQueue,
     metrics: SerialSubmitterMetrics,
-) {
+) -> PendingOperationResult {
     trace!(?op, "Confirming operation");
     debug_assert_eq!(*op.destination_domain(), domain);
 
-    match op.confirm().await {
-        PendingOperationResult::Success | PendingOperationResult::Confirm => {
+    let operation_result = op.confirm().await;
+    match operation_result {
+        PendingOperationResult::Success => {
             debug!(?op, "Operation confirmed");
             metrics.ops_confirmed.inc();
         }
-        PendingOperationResult::NotReady => {
-            // none of the operations are ready yet, so wait for a little bit
+        PendingOperationResult::NotReady | PendingOperationResult::Confirm => {
+            // TODO: push multiple messages at once
             confirm_queue.push(op).await;
-            sleep(Duration::from_secs(5)).await;
         }
         PendingOperationResult::Reprepare => {
             metrics.ops_failed.inc();
@@ -341,6 +350,7 @@ async fn confirm_operation(
             metrics.ops_dropped.inc();
         }
     }
+    operation_result
 }
 
 #[derive(Debug, Clone)]
@@ -390,9 +400,10 @@ impl OperationBatch {
             Ok(outcome) => {
                 // TODO: use the `tx_outcome` with the total gas expenditure
                 // We'll need to proportionally set `used_gas` based on the tx_outcome, so it can be updated in the confirm step
-                // which means we need to add a `set_transaction_outcome` fn to `PendingOperation`, and maybe also `set_next_attempt_after(CONFIRM_DELAY);`
+                // which means we need to add a `set_transaction_outcome` fn to `PendingOperation`
                 info!(outcome=?outcome, batch_size=self.operations.len(), batch=?self.operations, "Submitted transaction batch");
-                for op in self.operations {
+                for mut op in self.operations {
+                    op.set_next_attempt_after(CONFIRM_DELAY);
                     confirm_queue.push(op).await;
                 }
                 return;
@@ -414,24 +425,23 @@ impl OperationBatch {
             .iter()
             .map(|op| op.try_batch())
             .collect::<ChainResult<Vec<BatchItem<HyperlaneMessage>>>>()?;
+
         // We already assume that the relayer submits to a single mailbox per destination.
         // So it's fine to use the first item in the batch to get the mailbox.
-
         let Some(first_item) = batch.first() else {
             return Err(ChainCommunicationError::BatchIsEmpty);
         };
-        let mailbox = first_item.mailbox.clone();
 
         // We use the estimated gas limit from the prior call to
         // `process_estimate_costs` to avoid a second gas estimation.
-        let outcome = mailbox.process_batch(&batch).await?;
+        let outcome = first_item.mailbox.process_batch(&batch).await?;
         metrics.ops_submitted.inc_by(self.operations.len() as u64);
         Ok(outcome)
     }
 
     async fn submit_serially(self, confirm_queue: &mut OpQueue, metrics: &SerialSubmitterMetrics) {
         for op in self.operations.into_iter() {
-            submit_and_confirm_op(op, confirm_queue, metrics).await;
+            submit_single_operation(op, confirm_queue, metrics).await;
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/config.rs b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/config.rs
index 5778c88c77..e56d968dc9 100644
--- a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/config.rs
+++ b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/config.rs
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ pub struct TransactionOverrides {
     pub max_priority_fee_per_gas: Option<U256>,
 }
 
-/// Ethereum transaction overrides.
+/// Config for batching messages
 #[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
 pub struct MessageBatchConfig {
     /// Optional Multicall3 contract address
diff --git a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/mailbox.rs b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/mailbox.rs
index 71f4b07345..5718dd1df8 100644
--- a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/mailbox.rs
+++ b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/mailbox.rs
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ use crate::interfaces::arbitrum_node_interface::ArbitrumNodeInterface;
 use crate::interfaces::i_mailbox::{
     IMailbox as EthereumMailboxInternal, ProcessCall, IMAILBOX_ABI,
 };
-use crate::tx::{call_with_lag, fill_tx_gas_params, report_tx, GAS_ESTIMATE_BUFFER};
+use crate::tx::{call_with_lag, fill_tx_gas_params, report_tx, BATCH_GAS_LIMIT};
 use crate::{BuildableWithProvider, ConnectionConf, EthereumProvider, TransactionOverrides};
 
 use super::multicall::{self, build_multicall};
@@ -380,13 +380,12 @@ where
             .map_err(|e| HyperlaneEthereumError::MulticallError(e.to_string()))?;
         let contract_call_futures = messages
             .iter()
-            .map(|batch| async {
+            .map(|batch_item| async {
                 // move ownership of the batch inside the closure
-                let batch = batch.clone();
                 self.process_contract_call(
-                    &batch.data,
-                    &batch.submission_data.metadata,
-                    Some(batch.submission_data.gas_limit),
+                    &batch_item.data,
+                    &batch_item.submission_data.metadata,
+                    Some(batch_item.submission_data.gas_limit),
                 )
                 .await
             })
@@ -396,12 +395,9 @@ where
             .into_iter()
             .collect::<ChainResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
 
-        let batch_call = multicall::batch::<_, ()>(&mut multicall, contract_calls).await?;
+        let batch_call = multicall::batch::<_, ()>(&mut multicall, contract_calls);
         let call = self
-            .add_gas_overrides(
-                batch_call,
-                GAS_ESTIMATE_BUFFER.checked_mul(80).map(Into::into),
-            )
+            .add_gas_overrides(batch_call, Some(BATCH_GAS_LIMIT.into()))
             .await?;
 
         let receipt = report_tx(call).await?;
diff --git a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/multicall.rs b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/multicall.rs
index 0590515c54..6f2c279216 100644
--- a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/multicall.rs
+++ b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/contracts/multicall.rs
@@ -2,9 +2,7 @@ use std::sync::Arc;
 
 use ethers::{abi::Detokenize, providers::Middleware};
 use ethers_contract::{builders::ContractCall, Multicall, MulticallResult, MulticallVersion};
-use hyperlane_core::{
-    utils::hex_or_base58_to_h256, ChainResult, HyperlaneDomain, HyperlaneProvider,
-};
+use hyperlane_core::{utils::hex_or_base58_to_h256, HyperlaneDomain, HyperlaneProvider};
 
 use crate::{ConnectionConf, EthereumProvider};
 
@@ -36,10 +34,10 @@ pub async fn build_multicall<M: Middleware + 'static>(
     Ok(multicall)
 }
 
-pub async fn batch<M: Middleware, D: Detokenize>(
+pub fn batch<M: Middleware, D: Detokenize>(
     multicall: &mut Multicall<M>,
     calls: Vec<ContractCall<M, D>>,
-) -> ChainResult<ContractCall<M, Vec<MulticallResult>>> {
+) -> ContractCall<M, Vec<MulticallResult>> {
     // clear any calls that were in the multicall beforehand
     multicall.clear_calls();
 
@@ -47,6 +45,5 @@ pub async fn batch<M: Middleware, D: Detokenize>(
         multicall.add_call(call, ALLOW_BATCH_FAILURES);
     });
 
-    let res = multicall.as_aggregate_3_value();
-    Ok(res)
+    multicall.as_aggregate_3_value()
 }
diff --git a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/tx.rs b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/tx.rs
index a277a26147..4ebd35ac35 100644
--- a/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/tx.rs
+++ b/rust/chains/hyperlane-ethereum/src/tx.rs
@@ -22,7 +22,10 @@ use tracing::{error, info};
 use crate::{Middleware, TransactionOverrides};
 
 /// An amount of gas to add to the estimated gas
-pub const GAS_ESTIMATE_BUFFER: u32 = 50000;
+pub const GAS_ESTIMATE_BUFFER: u32 = 50_000;
+
+/// The gas limit to temporarily hardcode when sending multicall operations
+pub const BATCH_GAS_LIMIT: u32 = 4_000_000;
 
 const PENDING_TRANSACTION_POLLING_INTERVAL: Duration = Duration::from_secs(2);
 
diff --git a/rust/hyperlane-core/src/traits/mailbox.rs b/rust/hyperlane-core/src/traits/mailbox.rs
index 2accc2c0cf..fbd9dd5bc0 100644
--- a/rust/hyperlane-core/src/traits/mailbox.rs
+++ b/rust/hyperlane-core/src/traits/mailbox.rs
@@ -45,7 +45,6 @@ pub trait Mailbox: HyperlaneContract + Send + Sync + Debug {
         &self,
         _messages: &[BatchItem<HyperlaneMessage>],
     ) -> ChainResult<TxOutcome> {
-        tracing::warn!("In Mailbox process_batch, returning BatchingFailed");
         // Batching is not supported by default
         Err(ChainCommunicationError::BatchingFailed)
     }
diff --git a/rust/hyperlane-core/src/types/transaction.rs b/rust/hyperlane-core/src/types/transaction.rs
index 3ef5526fa3..3f6085d659 100644
--- a/rust/hyperlane-core/src/types/transaction.rs
+++ b/rust/hyperlane-core/src/types/transaction.rs
@@ -5,8 +5,9 @@ use derive_new::new;
 
 /// State for the next submission attempt generated by a prepare call.
 #[derive(Clone, Debug)]
-pub struct TxSubmissionData {
-    /// Transaction metadata
+pub struct MessageSubmissionData {
+    /// Transaction metadata - currently only applies to Messages, so this field can be made optional or generic if other
+    /// operations are submitted in the future.
     pub metadata: Vec<u8>,
     /// Gas limit for the transaction
     pub gas_limit: U256,
@@ -18,7 +19,7 @@ pub struct BatchItem<T> {
     /// The data to be submitted
     pub data: T,
     /// Data to do with this transaction submission
-    pub submission_data: TxSubmissionData,
+    pub submission_data: MessageSubmissionData,
     /// The mailbox to send the result to
     /// TODO: turn this into a `destination contract` object when we batch more than just messages
     pub mailbox: Arc<dyn Mailbox>,
@@ -29,7 +30,6 @@ pub struct BatchItem<T> {
 pub trait TryBatchAs<T> {
     /// Try to convert the item into a batch item
     fn try_batch(&self) -> ChainResult<BatchItem<T>> {
-        tracing::warn!("In TryBatchAs<T>, returning BatchingFailed");
         Err(crate::ChainCommunicationError::BatchingFailed)
     }
 }