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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/[email protected]"></script><script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/[email protected]"></script><script src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/[email protected]/dist/index.umd.min.js"></script><script>(r => {
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})(() => window.markmap,null,{"type":"heading","depth":0,"payload":{"lines":[1,2]},"content":"RPLA Exam Revision","children":[{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[3,4]},"content":"1st RPLA Exam Deficiency","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[5,6]},"content":"Minimum height rules","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[6,7]},"content":"<strong>populous areas and public gatherings</strong>: You must not fly an aeroplane over a populous area or public gathering below <em>1,000 ft</em> above the highest feature or obstacle within a horizontal radius of <em>600 m</em> of the point on the ground or water immediately below the aeroplane."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[7,8]},"content":"<strong>other areas</strong>: When flying over an area that is not a populous area or public gathering (CASR 91.265), you must not fly an aircraft below 500 ft above the highest feature or obstacle within a horizontal radius of 300 m of the point on the ground or water immediately below the aircraft."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[8,9]},"content":"Spin Recovery","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[9,10]},"content":"Power is first reduced to idle and the ailerons are neutralized."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[10,11]},"content":"Then, full opposite rudder (that is, against the yaw) is added and held to counteract the spin rotation, and the elevator control is moved briskly forward to reduce the angle of attack below the critical angle."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[11,12]},"content":"Depending on the airplane and type of spin, the elevator action could be a minimal input before rotation ceases, or in other cases the pilot may have to move the elevator control to its full forward position to effect recovery from the upright spin."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[12,13]},"content":"Once the rotation has stopped, the rudder must be neutralized and the airplane returned to level flight."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[13,14]},"content":"This procedure is sometimes called <strong><u>PARE</u></strong>, for <em><u>P</u>ower idle</em>, <em><u>A</u>ilerons neutral</em>, <em><u>R</u>udder opposite the spin and held</em>, and <em><u>E</u>levator through neutral</em>."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[14,15]},"content":"Glide Speed and Distance","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[15,16]},"content":"The gliding slope does not change with weight."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[16,17]},"content":"However, the gliding speed would increase with weight so most manufacturers will establish the best glide speed at gross weight for the aircraft. That means your best glide speed will be a little lower for lower aircraft weights."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[17,18]},"content":"SARTIME Cancellation","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[18,19]},"content":"<em>"ABC cancel SARTIME 0700 for arrival at Archerfield."</em>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[19,20]},"content":"Ear","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[20,21]},"content":"When we climbing, the air pressure inside the ear would be higher than the air outside, but in that case, the air inside could easily escape through the tube because that is the normal direction of fluid movement."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[21,22]},"content":"However, when we descend <em>again</em>, we end up in d situation where the air pressure on the outside of the drum is at a higher pressure than the air inside. It may <strong>collapse</strong> the tube. Because of this restriction, air cannot get into balance the pressure and so the ear drum is pushed in. This can be painful or even damaging."}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[23,24]},"content":"Communications","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[25,26]},"content":"Frequency","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[26,27]},"content":"HF <code>3 MHz - 30 MHz</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[27,28]},"content":"reflects from the ionosphere"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[28,29]},"content":"could be used for long distance communication"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[29,30]},"content":"VHF <code>30 MHz - 300 MHz</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[30,31]},"content":"straight line path"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[31,32]},"content":"1 Megahertz (MHz) = 1,000,000 Hz"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[32,33]},"content":"Minimum separation is <code>0.05 MHz</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[33,34]},"content":"<code>118.0 MHz - 136.0 MHz</code> for aviation purposes in AU"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[34,35]},"content":"Range","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[35,36]},"content":"normal range <code>48 NM</code> at <code>2000 ft AMSL</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[36,37]},"content":"<code>60 NM - 80 NM</code> below <code>5000 ft</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[37,38]},"content":"<code>90 NM - 110 NM</code> between <code>5000 ft</code> and <code>10000 ft</code>"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[38,39]},"content":"UHF <code>300 MHz - 3 GHz (3000 MHz)</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[40,41]},"content":"VHF Equipments","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[41,42]},"content":"Aerials"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[42,43]},"content":"ON/OFF Switch"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[43,44]},"content":"Transmit Button"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[44,45]},"content":"Microphones, Headphones and Speakers"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[45,46]},"content":"Frequency Selector"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[46,47]},"content":"Volume Control"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[47,48]},"content":"Squelch Control"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[48,49]},"content":"Power Sources, Fuses and Circuit Breakers"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[50,51]},"content":"VHF Communication","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[51,52]},"content":"is required","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[52,53]},"content":"in CTA (Class C, D, E)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[53,54]},"content":"in controlled aerodromes + not-manned tower = CTR (Class G)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[54,55]},"content":"outside CTA + above <code>5000 ft AMSL</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[55,56]},"content":"outside CTA + Reduced VMC + below <code>max(3000 ft AMSL, 1000 ft AGL)</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[56,57]},"content":"at non-towered aerodromes + "CERT" or "REG" on ERSA"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[57,58]},"content":"continuous listening watch is required <em>except</em> Class G + below <code>5000 ft AMSL</code> but highly recommended"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[59,60]},"content":"Transponder","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[60,61]},"content":"Code eg. <code>Squawk 7421</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[61,62]},"content":"<code>1200</code> VFR flights (Class E, G)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[62,63]},"content":"<code>3000</code> All flights (Class A, C, D) + IFR flights (Class E)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[63,64]},"content":"<code>7500</code> <code>EMERGENCY CODE</code> Aircraft hijacking"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[64,65]},"content":"<code>7600</code> <code>EMERGENCY CODE</code> Radio failure (lost communications)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[65,66]},"content":"<code>7700</code> <code>EMERGENCY CODE</code> Emergency"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[66,67]},"content":"Mode","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[67,68]},"content":"<code>A</code> Provides a 4-digit octal identification code for the aircraft, set in the cockpit but assigned by the air traffic controller. Mode 3/A is often combined with Mode C to provide altitude information as well."},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[68,69]},"content":"<code>C</code> Provides the aircraft's pressure altitude and is usually combined with Mode 3/A to provide a combination of a 4-digit octal code and altitude as Mode 3 A/C, often referred to as Mode A and C."},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[69,70]},"content":"<code>S</code> Provides multiple information formats to a selective interrogation. Each aircraft is assigned a fixed 24-bit address."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[70,71]},"content":"receives interrogation from secondary surveillance radar (SSR) on <code>1,030 MHz</code> and replies on <code>1,090 MHz</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[71,72]},"content":"<em>You must select the transponder to <code>Standby</code> before effecting any SSR code change and then return the transponder to <code>ON/ALT</code>.</em>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[73,74]},"content":"Radio Telephone","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[74,75]},"content":"Pronunciation","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[75,76]},"content":"Letters <code>Alpha, Bravo, ..., Zulu</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[76,77]},"content":"Numbers <code>9 -> NINE ER</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[77,78]},"content":"Altitude, Height and Visibility <code>12700 ft -> One Two THOUSAND Seven HUNDRED</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[78,79]},"content":"Flight Level, Speed, Heading, Direction, Runways and QNH <code>One Three Zero</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[79,80]},"content":"Frequencies <code>132.8 -> One Three Two DECIMAL Eight</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[80,81]},"content":"Time <code>0920 UTC -> Zero Nine Two Zero ZULU</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[81,82]},"content":"Words and Phrases <code>Affirm / Negative / Standby / ......</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[83,84]},"content":"Readability Scale","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[84,85]},"content":"<code>5</code> Perfectly Readable"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[85,86]},"content":"<code>4</code> Readable"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[86,87]},"content":"<code>3</code> Readable but with difficulty"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[87,88]},"content":"<code>2</code> Readable now and then"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[88,89]},"content":"<code>1</code> Unreadable"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[90,91]},"content":"Emergency","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[91,92]},"content":"<code>MAYDAY</code> Call: <code>7700</code> distress eg. engine failure"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[92,93]},"content":"<code>PANPAN</code> Call: <code>7700</code> urgency eg. passenger heart attack"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[93,94]},"content":"<code>MINIMUM FUEL</code> <em>Guidelines for aircraft fuel requirements Chapter 6.4.1</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[94,95]},"content":"Lost of Radio","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[95,96]},"content":"maintain terrain clearance and VMC"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[96,97]},"content":"try to establish communication"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[97,98]},"content":"broadcast intensions with prefix <code>TRANSMITTING BLIND</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[98,99]},"content":"Squawk <code>7600</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[99,100]},"content":"back to most suitable aerodrome"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[100,101]},"content":"maintain <code>1500 ft</code> passing the aerodrome"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[101,102]},"content":"indicating by rocking the aircraft wings"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[102,103]},"content":"see light signals"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[103,104]},"content":"report arrival to ATS"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[105,106]},"content":"Light Signals","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[106,107]},"content":"On Ground","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[107,108]},"content":"<code>Green</code> Authorised to <strong>take off</strong> if pilot is satisfied that no collision risk exists"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[108,110]},"content":"<code>Green flashing</code> Authorised to <strong>taxi</strong> if pilot is satisfied that no collision<br>\nrisk exists"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[110,111]},"content":"<code>Red</code> Stop"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[111,112]},"content":"<code>Red flashing</code> <strong>Taxi clear of runway in use</strong>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[112,113]},"content":"<code>White flashing</code> <strong>Return</strong> to starting point on aerodrome"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[113,114]},"content":"In flight","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[114,115]},"content":"<code>Green</code> Authorised to <strong>land</strong> if pilot is satisfied that no collision risk exists"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[115,116]},"content":"<code>Green flashing</code> <strong>Return</strong> for landing"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[116,117]},"content":"<code>Red</code> <strong>Give way</strong> to other aircraft and <strong>continue</strong> circling"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[117,118]},"content":"<code>Red flashing</code> <strong>Do not land</strong> aerodrome unsafe"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[119,120]},"content":"Unit and Rules of Thumb","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[121,122]},"content":"Cloud: <code>3 OKTAS</code> 3/8 sky cloud"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[122,123]},"content":"Runway 34: 340 Degree Magnetic"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[123,124]},"content":"Direction:","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[124,125]},"content":"Clock Direction:","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[125,126]},"content":"<code>12 o'clock</code> ahead ⬆️"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[126,127]},"content":"<code>3 o'clock</code> right ➡️"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[127,128]},"content":"<code>6 o'clock</code> back ⬇️"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[128,129]},"content":"<code>9 o'clock</code> left ⬅️"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[129,130]},"content":"Degree","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[130,131]},"content":"<code>360</code> North"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[131,132]},"content":"<code>90</code> East"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[132,133]},"content":"<code>180</code> South"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[133,134]},"content":"<code>270</code> West"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[134,135]},"content":"Wind Direction and Speed","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[135,136]},"content":"ATIS: Degree magnetic / knots"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[136,137]},"content":"Area forecast: Degree true / knots"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[137,138]},"content":"Temperature","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[138,139]},"content":"Australia use Centigrade temperature for aviation."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[139,140]},"content":"Centigrade to Fahrenheit: <code>(°C × 9/5) + 32 = °F</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[140,141]},"content":"Visibility in <code>m</code> or <code>km</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[141,142]},"content":"Altitude and Height","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[142,143]},"content":"in <code>ft</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[143,144]},"content":"<code>1 ft = 0.31 m</code>, <code>1 m = 3.28 ft</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[144,145]},"content":"`AAL Height Above Average Terrain"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[145,146]},"content":"<code>AGL</code> Height Above Ground Level"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[146,147]},"content":"<code>AMSL</code> Height Above Mean Sea Level"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[147,148]},"content":"Time","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[148,149]},"content":"Time Group: year-month-day and <code>MM-DD-HH-MM</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[149,150]},"content":"Time Zone","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[150,151]},"content":"<code>UTC</code> Universal Time Coordinated"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[151,152]},"content":"<code>1100 UTC (+0) = 2100 AEST (+10)</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[152,153]},"content":"<code>1100 UTC (+0) = 2200 AEDT (+11)</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[153,154]},"content":"Abbreviations","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[154,155]},"content":"<code>ETA</code> Estimated Time of Arrival"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[155,156]},"content":"<code>ETD</code> Estimated time of Departure"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[156,157]},"content":"<code>EET</code> Estimated Elapsed Time"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[157,158]},"content":"Unit Converting","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[158,159]},"content":"<code>1 NM = 1.852 km</code>, <code>1 km = 0.54 MN</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[159,160]},"content":"<code>1 mile = 1.609 km</code>, <code>1 km = 0.62 mile</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[160,161]},"content":"<code>1 lb = 0.45 kg</code>, <code>1 kg = 2.205 lb</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[161,162]},"content":"Density of AVGAS = <code>0.72 kg/L</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[162,163]},"content":"Density of lubricating oil weight = <code>0.8725 kg/L</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[163,164]},"content":"<code>1 US gal = 3.785 L</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[164,165]},"content":"<code>1 knot = 1 NM//hour</code>"}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[166,167]},"content":"Instruments","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[168,169]},"content":"Pressure Instruments","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[169,170]},"content":"Two aspects of air pressure:","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[170,171]},"content":"Static Pressure","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[171,172]},"content":"Only inversely relative to the altitude"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[172,173]},"content":"Dynamic Pressure","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[173,174]},"content":"proportional to the speed relative to the air"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[174,175]},"content":"proportional to the density of the air"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[175,176]},"content":"Three basic instruments relied on "pressure":","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[176,177]},"content":"Altimeter <code>ALT</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[177,178]},"content":"measured by the <strong>static pressure</strong> only"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[178,179]},"content":"when static pressure system is blocked, the reading of <code>ALT</code> would be <em>iced</em>."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[179,180]},"content":"Airspeed Indicator <code>ASI</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[180,181]},"content":"measured by the <strong>dynamic pressure</strong>, which could be calculated by <strong>the difference between total pressure and static pressure</strong>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[181,182]},"content":"<code>Dynamic Pressure = Pitot Pressure - Static Pressure</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[182,183]},"content":"when static pressure system is blocked, the reading of <code>ASI</code> would be","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":6,"payload":{"lines":[183,184]},"content":"<em>underread</em> when climbing, because the actual static pressure would be lower than the read one."},{"type":"list_item","depth":6,"payload":{"lines":[184,185]},"content":"<em>overread</em> when descending, because the actual static pressure would be higher than the read one."}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[185,186]},"content":"Vertical Speed Indicator <code>VSI</code>:","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[186,187]},"content":"indicates the variation rate of altitude"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[187,188]},"content":"which is influenced by the <strong>static pressure</strong> only"},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[188,189]},"content":"when static pressure system is blocked, the <code>VSI</code> could not show any climbing or descending data."}]}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[189,190]},"content":"Gyroscopic Instruments","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[190,191]},"content":"Attitude Indicator / Artificial Horizon <code>AI</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[191,192]},"content":"shows pitch attitude and bank angle"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[192,193]},"content":"<em>vacuum driven</em>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[193,194]},"content":"Heading Indicator","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[194,195]},"content":"must be aligned to the magnetic compass every <strong>15 minutes</strong>."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[195,196]},"content":"Turn Coordinator","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[196,197]},"content":"<em>electrically driven</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[197,198]},"content":"could be emergency backup to the <code>AI</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[198,199]},"content":"electrical failure would not influence the balance ball"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[199,200]},"content":"Compass Instruments","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[200,201]},"content":"Magnetic Compass","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[201,202]},"content":"read from the compass card under lubber line on the face of instrument"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[202,203]},"content":"would <strong>not be accurate</strong> while the aeroplane is <em>accelerating, turning, or when entering a climb or descent</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[203,204]},"content":"would <strong>not be accurate</strong> if <em>magnetic, electrical, battery or iron objects are placed near the compass</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[204,205]},"content":"Turn and Acceleration Errors","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[205,206]},"content":"In the <strong>north hemisphere</strong>, if accelerating on <em>west or east</em>, acceleration error is an indication of a turn to the <em>south</em>."},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[206,207]},"content":"In the <strong>south hemisphere</strong>, the compass behaviour turns too fast through <em>north</em> and too slow through <em>south</em>. To minimise the error, the pilot must <strong>overshot north and undershot south (ONUS)</strong>."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[207,208]},"content":"<code>Turning left, skidding right, compass decreasing, wings level</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[208,209]},"content":"<code>Turning right, skidding left, compass increasing, wings level</code>"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[210,211]},"content":"Atmospheric Effects","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[212,213]},"content":"Airspeed","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[213,214]},"content":"Indicated Airspeed <code>IAS</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[214,215]},"content":"True Airspeed <code>TAS</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[215,216]},"content":"Calibrated Airspeed <code>CAS</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[216,217]},"content":"Wind","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[217,218]},"content":"<strong>Headwind</strong>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[218,219]},"content":"while taxiing, elevator <em>up</em> (control column <em>back</em>)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[219,220]},"content":"<em>reduce</em> the takeoff and landing distance"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[220,221]},"content":"<em>steeper</em> angle for climbing and descending"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[221,222]},"content":"<strong>Tailwind</strong>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[222,223]},"content":"while taxiing, elevator <em>down</em> (control column <em>forward</em>)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[223,224]},"content":"<em>increase</em> the takeoff and landing distance"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[224,225]},"content":"<em>shallower</em> angle for climbing and descending"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[225,226]},"content":"<strong>Crosswind</strong>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[226,227]},"content":"while taxiing, <strong>up aileron</strong> into wind (control column <em>into wind</em>)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[227,228]},"content":"nose <em>into wind</em> to correct the flight path"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[228,229]},"content":"Windshear and Wind Gradient","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[229,230]},"content":"Reducing headwind could cause <em>overshoot</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[230,231]},"content":"Reducing tailwind could cause <em>undershoot</em>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[231,232]},"content":"Turbulence","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[232,233]},"content":"<em>Turbulent vortices causing downdrafts are most likely downwind of the obstacle.</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[233,234]},"content":"<strong>Weak turbulence</strong> could lead to very strong rolling moment or a direct downdraught by increasing AoA from a heavy aeroplane."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[234,235]},"content":"Wingtip vortices occur when a wing is generating <strong>lift</strong>."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[235,236]},"content":"To <strong>avoid</strong> weak turbulence","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[236,237]},"content":"<code>You: takeoff</code> <code>Heavy: takeoff</code> liftoff <em>before</em> the heavy aircraft's liftoff point, and stay above and upwind its flight path"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[237,238]},"content":"<code>You: landing</code> <code>Heavy: landing</code> stay above the heavy aircraft's flight path, and land <em>past</em> its touchdown point."},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[238,239]},"content":"<code>You: land</code> <code>Heavy: takeoff</code> aim to land "before" the point the aircraft became airborne"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[239,240]},"content":"Helicopter Downwash (Rotorwash)","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[240,241]},"content":"vertically and outwards"}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[242,243]},"content":"Meteorology","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[244,245]},"content":"Clouds","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[245,246]},"content":"Latin","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[246,247]},"content":"<code>cumulus</code>: heaped"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[247,248]},"content":"<code>altus</code>: high"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[248,249]},"content":"<code>cirrus</code>: curl"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[249,250]},"content":"<code>stratus</code>: layered"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[250,251]},"content":"<code>nimbus</code>: rainstorm"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[251,252]},"content":"Special Types of Clouds","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[252,253]},"content":"<strong>Nimbostratus</strong>: a multi-level, amorphous, nearly uniform and often dark grey cloud that usually produces continuous rain, snow or sleet but no lightning or thunder."},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[253,254]},"content":"<strong>Cumulonimbus</strong>: are capable of producing lightning and other dangerous severe weather, such as tornadoes, hazardous winds, and large hailstones."},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[254,255]},"content":"<strong>Cumulus</strong>:","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[255,256]},"content":"form via atmospheric convection as air warmed by the surface begins to rise."},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[256,257]},"content":"are often precursors of other types of clouds, such as cumulonimbus, when influenced by weather factors such as instability, moisture, and temperature gradient."},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[257,258]},"content":"tubular cloud streets (in lines stretching over 480 kilometres long) generally form during high-pressure systems, such as after a cold front."},{"type":"list_item","depth":5,"payload":{"lines":[258,259]},"content":"good visibility between cumulus clouds"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[259,260]},"content":"<strong>Stratus</strong>: while light rain (drizzle) may fall, this cloud does not indicate much meteorological precipitation."}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[260,261]},"content":"Mountain Waves"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[261,262]},"content":"<strong>Thermals</strong> are caused by the sun heating the earth."},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[262,263]},"content":"<strong>Turbulence</strong>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[263,264]},"content":"<em>Light</em>: No significant changes to the aircraft attitude and/or altitude"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[264,265]},"content":"<em>Moderate</em>: May change the aircraft attitude and/or altitude but the aircraft remains positive control at all times"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[265,266]},"content":"<em>Severe</em>: abrupt changes in aircraft attitude/altitude, and the aircraft may be out of control for short periods"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[266,267]},"content":"Convection"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[267,268]},"content":"Inversion"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[268,269]},"content":"Interpret Synoptic Chart","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[269,270]},"content":"<strong><a href=\"https://media.bom.gov.au/social/blog/2391/the-art-of-the-chart-how-to-read-a-weather-map/\">The art of the chart: how to read a weather map</a></strong>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[270,271]},"content":"<em>Isobars</em>: Lines connecting points of equal pressure"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[271,272]},"content":"<em>Isotachs</em>: Lines connecting points of equal wind speed"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[272,273]},"content":"<em>Cold Fronts</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[273,274]},"content":"<em>Warm Fronts</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[274,275]},"content":"<em>Occluded Fronts</em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[275,276]},"content":"<em>Troughs</em>: areas where the air is particularly unstable"}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[277,278]},"content":"Loading","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[279,280]},"content":"Charts","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[280,281]},"content":"Loading Chart "Alpha""},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[281,282]},"content":"Loading Chart "Bravo""},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[282,283]},"content":"Loading Chart "Charlie""}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[284,285]},"content":"Performance","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[286,287]},"content":"Pressure Altitude","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[287,288]},"content":"Pressure altitude is a the equivalent altitude in the International Standard Atmosphere."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[288,289]},"content":"Only if the datum (QNH) is 1013.2 hPa, the altimeter indicates pressure altitude."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[289,290]},"content":"<code>PA = Elevation - 30 * (QNH - 1013)</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[290,291]},"content":"<strong>Eg. Cooma Aerodrome</strong>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[291,292]},"content":"<code>Elevation: 3106 ft & QNH 1000 hPa</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[292,293]},"content":"<code>PA = 3106 - 30 * (1000 - 1013)</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[293,294]},"content":"<code>PA = 3106 + 390 = 3496 ft</code>"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[294,295]},"content":"Density Altitude","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[295,296]},"content":"The density altitude is the altitude relative to standard atmospheric conditions at which the air density would be equal to the indicated air density at the place of observation."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[296,297]},"content":"Density Altitude is corresponding to the density in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[297,298]},"content":"DA is PA corrected for the temperature"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[298,299]},"content":"<code>ISA Temperature = 15°C - (height(thousand ft) * 2°C)</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[299,300]},"content":"<code>DA = Pressure Altitude + 120 * (Actual Temperature - ISA Temperature)</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[300,301]},"content":"<strong>Eg. Cooma Aerodrome</strong>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[301,302]},"content":"<code>Elevation: 3106 ft & QNH 1000 hPa & 12°C</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[302,303]},"content":"<code>ISA Temperature = 15°C - 3.496 * 2°C = 8°C</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[303,304]},"content":"<code>PA = 3496 ft</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[304,305]},"content":"<code>DA = 3496 + 120 * (12 - 8) = 3976 ft</code>"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[305,306]},"content":"Takeoff Performance","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[306,307]},"content":"Takeoff distance margin whenever build to "P" chart is normally <code>1.15</code>."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[307,308]},"content":"Takeoff Safety Speed <code>TOSS</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[308,309]},"content":"Takeoff Distance Required <code>TODR</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[309,310]},"content":"Landing Performance"},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[310,311]},"content":"<strong>Improving</strong> Factors","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[311,312]},"content":"<strong>Decreasing</strong> Landing Distance","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[312,313]},"content":"Dry runway / No water on the runway"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[313,314]},"content":"Upslope"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[314,315]},"content":"Decreasing weight"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[315,316]},"content":"Headwind"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[316,317]},"content":"Higher air density"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[317,318]},"content":"<strong>Decreasing</strong> Takeoff Distance","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[318,319]},"content":"Dry runway / No water on the runway"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[319,320]},"content":"Downslope"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[320,321]},"content":"Decreasing weight"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[321,322]},"content":"Headwind"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[322,323]},"content":"Higher air density"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[323,324]},"content":"<strong>Increasing</strong> Climb Gradient","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[324,325]},"content":"Decreasing weight"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[325,326]},"content":"Headwind"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[326,327]},"content":"V-speed","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[327,328]},"content":"<code>V_FE</code> Maximum flap extended 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climb"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[335,336]},"content":"Charts","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[336,337]},"content":"Takeoff Charts","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[337,338]},"content":"<strong>Refer to <a href=\"../Theorem%20-%20Questions%20Set/RPL%20Theorem%20Study%20Questions.md#module-11b:-performance-2---"P"-takeoff-chart\">takeoff chart examples from questions set module 11b.</a></strong>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[338,339]},"content":"Module 11B Q8 <code>fig 5</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[339,340]},"content":"Module 11B Q9 <code>fig 3</code>"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[340,341]},"content":"Landing Charts","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[341,342]},"content":"<strong>Refer to <a href=\"../Theorem%20-%20Questions%20Set/RPL%20Theorem%20Study%20Questions.md#module-11c:-performance-3---"P"-landing-chart\">landing chart examples from questions set module 11c.</a></strong>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[342,343]},"content":"Module 11C Q7 <code>fig 6</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[343,344]},"content":"Module 11C Q8 <code>fig 4</code>"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","depth":1,"payload":{"lines":[345,346]},"content":"Navigation","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[347,348]},"content":"North","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[348,349]},"content":"True North <code>T</code>: Direction to geographic north pole"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[349,350]},"content":"Magnetic North <code>M</code>: Direction to magnetic north pole"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[350,351]},"content":"Compass North <code>C</code>: Direction indicated by a freely suspended compass needle"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[351,352]},"content":"Difference between different "North"","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[352,353]},"content":"<em>Note: <code>East -> Clockwise -> Positive</code> and <code>West -> Anticlockwise -> Negative</code></em>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[353,354]},"content":"Variation <code>V</code>: difference between the true north and the magnetic north <code>True + Variation = Magnetic</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[354,355]},"content":"Deviation <code>D</code>: difference between the magnetic north and the compass north <code>Magnetic + Deviation = Compass</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[355,356]},"content":"<strong>Isogonals</strong>: Lines connecting points of equal variation"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[356,357]},"content":"Longitude and Latitude","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[357,358]},"content":"Longitude (0° - 180°)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[358,359]},"content":"Latitude (0° - 90°)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[359,360]},"content":"Prime meridian which <strong>longitude</strong> is defined to be 0°"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[360,361]},"content":"Equator which <strong>latitude</strong> is defined to be 0°."},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[361,362]},"content":"1° (Degree) = 60′ (Minutes) = 3600″ (Seconds)"},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[362,363]},"content":"Nautical mile: one minute (1/60 of a degree) of latitude."}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[363,364]},"content":"Charts","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[364,365]},"content":"World Aeronautical Charts <code>(WAC)</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[365,366]},"content":"<code>1:1,000,000</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[366,367]},"content":"Typographical and culture features"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[367,368]},"content":"<strong>NO</strong> airspace division or restricted & danger area"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[368,369]},"content":"Visual Navigation Chart <code>(VNC)</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[369,370]},"content":"<code>1:500,000</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[370,371]},"content":"used when operating around terminal areas"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[371,372]},"content":"less details but more coverage area in one chart"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[372,373]},"content":"Visual Terminal Charts <code>(VTC)</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[373,374]},"content":"<code>1:250,000</code>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[374,375]},"content":"used when area covered by the specific chart (close to main airports & limited to these)"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[375,376]},"content":"Terminal Area Charts <code>(TAC)</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[376,377]},"content":"TAC Charts are for use in terminal areas"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[377,378]},"content":"these charts provide airspace, air-routes, prohibited, restricted and danger areas, navigation aids and radio frequencies"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[378,379]},"content":"they are designed to display aeronautical information at a larger scale for easier use in congested areas"}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":3,"payload":{"lines":[379,380]},"content":"Planning Chart Australia <code>(PCA)</code>","children":[{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[380,381]},"content":"meteorological <strong>area forecast boundaries and locations</strong>"},{"type":"list_item","depth":4,"payload":{"lines":[381,382]},"content":"<strong>communication coverage</strong> outside controlled airspace and WAC coverage"}]}]},{"type":"list_item","depth":2,"payload":{"lines":[382,383]},"content":"IAS to TAS for low speed aircraft"}]}]},{"maxWidth":1000})</script>
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