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@article{Dussik1942,
author = {Dussik, K. T.},
journal = {Z Neurol Psychiatr},
pages = {153--168},
title = {{On the possibility of using ultrasound waves as a
diagnostic aid}},
volume = {174},
year = {1942},
}
@article{Singh2007,
author = {Singh, S. and Goyal, A.},
journal = {Texas Hear. Inst. J.},
pages = {431--8},
publisher = {Texas Heart Institute},
title = {{The origin of echocardiography: a tribute to Inge
Edler.}},
volume = {34},
year = {2007},
abstract = {The original description of M-mode echocardiography
in 1953, by Inge Edler (1911-2001) and his physicist
friend Hellmuth Hertz, marked the beginning of a new
diagnostic noninvasive technique. Edler used this
technique primarily for the preoperative study of
mitral stenosis and diagnosis of mitral
regurgitation. His work was carried forward by
cardiologists all over the world, who developed
Doppler, 2-dimensional, contrast, and transesophageal
echocardiography. These are now standard in
cardiologic examinations. Edler also influenced
neurologists and obstetricians at Lund University
(Sweden) to use ultrasound in their fields. For his
landmark discovery, Edler is recognized as the
"Father of Echocardiography."},
issn = {0730-2347},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18172524 http://
www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/
articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC2170493},
}
@article{Dalecki2004,
author = {Dalecki, D.},
journal = {Annu. Rev. Biomed. Eng.},
pages = {229--248},
title = {{Mechanical bioeffects of ultrasound.}},
volume = {6},
year = {2004},
abstract = {Ultrasound is used widely in medicine as both a
diagnostic and therapeutic tool. Through both thermal
and nonthermal mechanisms, ultrasound can produce a
variety of biological effects in tissues in vitro and
in vivo. This chapter provides an overview of the
fundamentals of key nonthermal mechanisms for the
interaction of ultrasound with biological tissues.
Several categories of mechanical bioeffects of
ultrasound are then reviewed to provide insight on
the range of ultrasound bioeffects in vivo, the
relevance of these effects to diagnostic imaging, and
the potential application of mechanical bioeffects to
the design of new therapeutic applications of
ultrasound in medicine.},
doi = {10.1146/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140126},
isbn = {1523-9829 (Print)$\backslash$r1523-9829 (Linking)},
issn = {1523-9829},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15255769},
}
@article{Nyborg2001,
author = {Nyborg, W. L.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {301--333},
title = {{Biological effects of ultrasound: Development of
safety guidelines. Part II: General review}},
volume = {27},
year = {2001},
abstract = {In the 1920s, the availability of piezoelectric
materials and electronic devices made it possible to
produce ultrasound (US) in water at high amplitudes,
so that it could be detected after propagation
through large distances. Laboratory experiments with
this new mechanical form of radiation showed that it
was capable of producing an astonishing variety of
physical, chemical and biologic effects. In this
review, the early findings on bioeffects are
discussed, especially those from experiments done in
the first few decades, as well as the concepts
employed in explaining them. Some recent findings are
discussed also, noting how the old and the new are
related. In the first few decades, bioeffects
research was motivated partly by curiosity, and
partly by the wish to increase the effectiveness and
ensure the safety of therapeutic US. Beginning in the
1970s, the motivation has come also from the need for
safety guidelines relevant to diagnostic US.
Instrumentation was developed for measuring acoustic
pressure in the fields of pulsed and focused US
employed, and standards were established for
specifying the fields of commercial equipment.
Critical levels of US quantities were determined from
laboratory experiments, together with biophysical
analysis, for bioeffects produced by thermal and
nonthermal mechanisms. These are the basis for safety
advice and guidelines recommended or being considered
by national, international, professional and
governmental organizations. (E-mail:
doi = {10.1016/S0301-5629(00)00333-1},
issn = {03015629},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0301562900003331 http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/
pii/S0301562900003331},
}
@article{OBrien2007,
author = {O'Brien, W. D.},
journal = {Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol.},
pages = {212--255},
title = {{Ultrasound–biophysics mechanisms☆}},
volume = {93},
year = {2007},
abstract = {Ultrasonic biophysics is the study of mechanisms
responsible for how ultrasound and biological
materials interact. Ultrasound-induced bioeffect or
risk studies focus on issues related to the effects
of ultrasound on biological materials. On the other
hand, when biological materials affect the ultrasonic
wave, this can be viewed as the basis for diagnostic
ultrasound. Thus, an understanding of the interaction
of ultrasound with tissue provides the scientific
basis for image production and risk assessment.
Relative to the bioeffect or risk studies, that is,
the biophysical mechanisms by which ultrasound
affects biological materials, ultrasound-induced
bioeffects are generally separated into thermal and
non-thermal mechanisms. Ultrasonic dosimetry is
concerned with the quantitative determination of
ultrasonic energy interaction with biological
materials. Whenever ultrasonic energy is propagated
into an attenuating material such as tissue, the
amplitude of the wave decreases with distance. This
attenuation is due to either absorption or
scattering. Absorption is a mechanism that represents
that portion of ultrasonic wave that is converted
into heat, and scattering can be thought of as that
portion of the wave, which changes direction. Because
the medium can absorb energy to produce heat, a
temperature rise may occur as long as the rate of
heat production is greater than the rate of heat
removal. Current interest with thermally mediated
ultrasound-induced bioeffects has focused on the
thermal isoeffect concept. The non-thermal mechanism
that has received the most attention is acoustically
generated cavitation wherein ultrasonic energy by
cavitation bubbles is concentrated. Acoustic
cavitation, in a broad sense, refers to
ultrasonically induced bubble activity occurring in a
biological material that contains pre-existing
gaseous inclusions. Cavitation-related mechanisms
include radiation force, microstreaming, shock waves,
free radicals, microjets and strain. It is more
challenging to deduce the causes of mechanical
effects in tissues that do not contain gas bodies.
These ultrasonic biophysics mechanisms will be
discussed in the context of diagnostic ultrasound
exposure risk concerns. ?? 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.},
doi = {10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2006.07.010},
isbn = {0079-6107},
issn = {00796107},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16989895 http://
linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0079610706000976 http:/
/linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0079610706000915},
}
@book{NCRP2002,
author = {{National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements. Scientific Committee 66 on Biological
Effects of Ultrasound.} and {National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements.}},
pages = {574},
publisher = {National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements},
title = {{Exposure criteria for medical diagnostic ultrasound.
II, Criteria based on all known mechanisms :
recommendations}},
year = {2002},
isbn = {0929600738},
url = {http://www.ncrppublications.org/Reports/140},
}
@article{Lehmann1953,
author = {Lehmann, J. F. and Herrick, J. F.},
journal = {Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil.},
pages = {86--98},
title = {{Biologic reactions to cavitation, a consideration
for ultrasonic therapy.}},
volume = {34},
year = {1953},
issn = {0003-9993},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13017801},
}
@article{Miller1994,
author = {Miller, D. L. and Thomas, R. M},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {817--825},
publisher = {Elsevier},
title = {{Lung damage from exposure to pulsed ultrasound}},
volume = {16},
year = {1990},
abstract = {Motivated by a recent finding that threshold
pressures for hemorrhage in mouse lung exposed to the
fields of an electrohydraulic lithotripter were less
than 2 MPa, we extended the exposures to pulsed
ultrasound. Sharply defined thresholds of the order
of 1 MPa were found with 10 $\mu$s length pulses and
roughly twice that value for 1 $\mu$s pulses. The
thresholds at 4 MHz are greater than at 1 MHz. The
thresholds are comparable for focused and unfocused
fields. As would be expected for a cavitation-like
phenomenon, temporal average intensity is a very poor
predictor of this effect. In the extreme case,
lesions were found at temporal average intensities on
the order of I mW/cm2.},
doi = {10.1016/0301-5629(90)90046-F},
issn = {03015629},
language = {English},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
030156299090046F http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/
030156299090046F http://www.umbjournal.org/article/
030156299090046F/fulltext},
}
@article{Dalecki1993,
author = {Dalecki, D. and Keller, B. B. and Raeman, C. H. and
Carstensen, E. L.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {385--90},
title = {{Effects of pulsed ultrasound on the frog heart: I.
Thresholds for changes in cardiac rhythm and aortic
pressure.}},
volume = {19},
year = {1993},
abstract = {High intensity pulsed ultrasound at 1.2 MHz is shown
to change the cardiac rhythm and aortic pressure of
frog hearts in vivo. Threshold levels for these
effects occur at acoustic pressure amplitudes of the
order of 10 MPa for 5 ms pulse lengths. Depending
upon the phase of the heart cycle, a pulse of
ultrasound either may cause a premature ventricular
contraction, a reduction in the strength of
contraction as measured by the aortic pressure, or an
enhanced relaxation of the heart muscle. There is an
increase in the effectiveness of the ultrasound with
increase in pulse length in the range from 1 to 5
ms.},
issn = {0301-5629},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8356782},
}
@article{MacRobbie1997,
author = {MacRobbie, A. G. and Raeman, C. H. and
Child, Sally Z. and Dalecki, Diane},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {761--765},
title = {{Thresholds for premature contractions in murine
hearts exposed to pulsed ultrasound}},
volume = {23},
year = {1997},
doi = {10.1016/S0301-5629(97)00049-5},
issn = {03015629},
url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/
S0301562997000495},
}
@article{Skyba1998,
author = {Skyba, D. M. and Price, R. J. and Linka, A. Z. and
Skalak, T. C. and Kaul, S.},
journal = {Circulation},
pages = {290--3},
title = {{Direct in vivo visualization of intravascular
destruction of microbubbles by ultrasound and its
local effects on tissue.}},
volume = {98},
year = {1998},
abstract = {BACKGROUND Our aim was to observe ultrasound-induced
intravascular microbubble destruction in vivo and to
characterize any resultant bioeffects. METHODS AND
RESULTS Intravital microscopy was used to visualize
the spinotrapezius muscle in 15 rats during
ultrasound delivery. Microbubble destruction during
ultrasound exposure caused rupture of {\textless} or
= 7-microm microvessels (mostly capillaries) and the
production of nonviable cells in adjacent tissue. The
number of microvessels ruptured and cells damaged
correlated linearly (P{\textless}0.001) with the
amount of ultrasound energy delivered. CONCLUSIONS
Microbubbles can be destroyed by ultrasound,
resulting in a bioeffect that could be used for local
drug delivery, angiogenesis, and vascular remodeling,
or for tumor destruction.},
issn = {0009-7322},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9711932},
}
@article{Miller2008a,
author = {Miller, D. L. and Averkiou, M. A. and
Brayman, A. A. and Everbach, E. C. and
Holland, C. K. and Wible, J. H. and Wu, J.},
journal = {J. Ultrasound Med.},
pages = {611--632; quiz 633--636},
title = {{Bioeffects considerations for diagnostic ultrasound
contrast agents.}},
volume = {27},
year = {2008},
abstract = {Diagnostic ultrasound contrast agents have been
developed for enhancing the echogenicity of blood and
for delineating other structures of the body.
Approved agents are suspensions of gas bodies
(stabilized microbubbles), which have been designed
for persistence in the circulation and strong echo
return for imaging. The interaction of ultrasound
pulses with these gas bodies is a form of acoustic
cavitation, and they also may act as inertial
cavitation nuclei. This interaction produces
mechanical perturbation and a potential for
bioeffects on nearby cells or tissues. In vitro,
sonoporation and cell death occur at mechanical index
(MI) values less than the inertial cavitation
threshold. In vivo, bioeffects reported for MI values
greater than 0.4 include microvascular leakage,
petechiae, cardiomyocyte death, inflammatory cell
infiltration, and premature ventricular contractions
and are accompanied by gas body destruction within
the capillary bed. Bioeffects for MIs of 1.9 or less
have been reported in skeletal muscle, fat,
myocardium, kidney, liver, and intestine. Therapeutic
applications that rely on these bioeffects include
targeted drug delivery to the interstitium and DNA
transfer into cells for gene therapy. Bioeffects of
contrast-aided diagnostic ultrasound happen on a
microscopic scale, and their importance in the
clinical setting remains uncertain.},
doi = {27/4/611 [pii]},
isbn = {0278-4297},
issn = {0278-4297},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18359911},
}
@book{Escoffre2016,
address = {Cham},
author = {Escoffre, J.-M. and Bouakaz, A.},
editor = {Escoffre, Jean-Michel and Bouakaz, Ayache},
publisher = {Springer International Publishing},
series = {Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology},
title = {{Therapeutic Ultrasound}},
volume = {880},
year = {2016},
abstract = {This book highlights advances and prospects of a
highly versatile and dynamic research field:
Therapeutic ultrasound. Leading experts in the field
describe a wide range of topics related to the
development of therapeutic ultrasound (i.e., high
intensity focused ultrasound, microbubble-assisted
ultrasound drug delivery, low intensity pulsed
ultrasound, ultrasound-sensitive nanocarriers),
ranging from the biophysical concepts (i.e., tissue
ablation, drug and gene delivery, neuromodulation) to
therapeutic applications (i.e., chemotherapy,
sonodynamic therapy, sonothrombolysis, immunotherapy,
lithotripsy, vaccination). This book is an
indispensable source of information for students,
researchers and clinicians dealing with non-invasive
image-guided ultrasound-based therapeutic
interventions in the fields of oncology, neurology,
cardiology and nephrology. Part I -- High Intensity
Focused Ultrasound Ablation of Pathological Tissue --
Chapter 1. HIFU Tissue Ablation: Concept {\&} Devices
G. Ter Haar -- Chapter 2. Prostate Focused Ultrasound
Therapy J.Y. Chapelon, O. Rouvière, S. Crouzet, A.
Gelet -- Chapter 3. MRI-guided HIFU Methods for the
Ablation of Liver and Renal Cancers B.D. de
Senneville, C. Moonen, M. Ries -- Chapter 4. Magnetic
Resonance-guided High Intensity Focused Ultrasound
Ablation of Breast Cancer -- F.M. Knuttel, M.A.A.J.
van den Bosch -- Chapter 5. HIFU for Palliative
Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer -- T.D. Khokhlova,
J.H. Hwang -- Chapter 6. MR-guided Transcranial
Focused Ultrasound -- J.F. Aubry, M. Tanter --
Chapter 7. Focused Ultrasound {\&} Lithotripsy -- T.
Ikeda, S. Yoshizawa, N. Koizumi, M. Mitsuishi, Y.
Matsumoto -- Chapter 8. Heat-based Tumor Ablation:
Role of the Immune Response F. Wu -- Part II -- Drug
and Gene Delivery using Bubble-assisted Ultrasound --
Chapter 9. Droplets, Bubbles and Ultrasound
Interactions O. Shpak, M. Verweij, N. de Jong, M.
Versluis -- Chapter 10. Sonoporation: Concept and
Mechanisms A. Bouakaz, A. Zeghimi, A.A. Doinikov --
Chapter 11. Design of Microbubbles for Gene/Drug
Delivery T. Bettinger, F. Tranquart -- Chapter 12.
Co-administration of Microbubbles and Drugs in
Ultrasound-assisted Drug Delivery: Comparison with
Drug-carrying Particles R. Suzuki, A.L. Klibanov --
Chapter 13. Drug-loaded Perfluorocarbon Nanodroplets
for Ultrasound-mediated Drug delivery N. Rapoport --
Chapter 14. Bubble-assisted Ultrasound: Application
in Immunotherapy and Vaccination J.M. Escoffre, R.
Deckers, C. Bos, C. Moonen -- Chapter 15.
Sonoporation: Application for Cancer Therapy -- J.
Qin, T.Y. Wang, J.K. Willmann -- Chapter 16.
Microbubble-assisted Ultrasound for Drug Delivery in
the Brain and Central Nervous System A. Burgess, K.
Hynynen -- Chapter 17. Microbubbles {\&} Ultrasoun:
Therapeutic Applications in Diabetic Nephropathy W.J.
Cao, P.N. Matkar, H.H. Chen, A. Mofid, H. Leong-Poi
-- Chapter 18. Drug and Gene Delivery using
Sonoporation for Cardiovascular Disease J. Castle,
S.B. Feinstein -- Chapter 19. Sonothrombolysis K.B.
Bader, G. Bouchoux, C.K. Holland -- Part III- Other
Ultrasound Therapy -- Chapter 20. Ultrasound-mediated
Polymeric Micelle Drug Delivery H. Xia, Y. Zhao, R.
Tong -- Chapter 21. Stimulation of Bone Repair with
Ultrasound -- F. Padilla, R. Puts, L. Vico, A.
Guignadon, K. Raum -- Chapter 22. Sonodynamic
Therapy: Concept, Mechanism {\&} Application to
Cancer Treatment A.P. McHale, J.F. Callan, N.
Nomikou, C. Fowley, B. Callen.},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-319-22536-4},
isbn = {978-3-319-22535-7},
url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-22536-4},
}
@article{Flynn1982,
author = {Flynn, H. G.},
journal = {J. Acoust. Soc. Am.},
pages = {1926},
publisher = {Acoustical Society of America},
title = {{Generation of transient cavities in liquids by
microsecond pulses of ultrasound}},
volume = {72},
year = {1982},
abstract = {Calculations reported here show that small gas nuclei
in a liquid acted on by microsecond ultrasonic pulses
may grow into transient cavities that collapse
violently. The maximum pressures and temperatures
generated by such collapsing cavities are found in
these calculations to be of the order of 1000 to 70
000 bars and 1000 ° to 20 000 °K.},
doi = {10.1121/1.388622},
issn = {00014966},
url = {http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/72/6/
10.1121/1.388622},
}
@book{Brujan2011,
address = {Berlin, Heidelberg},
author = {Brujan, E. A.},
booktitle = {Cavitation Non-Newtonian Fluids With Biomed. Bioeng.
Appl.},
pages = {1--269},
publisher = {Springer Berlin Heidelberg},
title = {{Cavitation in non-newtonian fluids: With biomedical
and bioengineering applications}},
year = {2011},
abstract = {Non-Newtonian properties on bubble dynamics and
cavitation are fundamentally different from those of
Newtonian fluids. The most significant effect arises
from the dramatic increase in viscosity of polymer
solutions in an extensional flow, such as that
generated about a spherical bubble during its growth
or collapse phase. In addition, many biological
fluids, such as blood, synovial fluid, and saliva,
have non-Newtonian properties and can display
significant viscoelastic behaviour. This monograph
elucidates general aspects of bubble dynamics and
cavitation in non-Newtonian fluids and applies them
to the fields of biomedicine and bioengineering. In
addition it presents many examples from the process
industries. The field is strongly interdisciplinary
and the numerous disciplines involve have and will
continue to overlook and reinvent each others' work.
This book helps researchers to think intuitively
about the diverse physics of these systems, to
attempt to bridge the various communities involved,
and to convey the interest, elegance, and variety of
physical phenomena that manifest themselves on the
micrometer and microsecond scales. Non-Newtonian
fluids.- Nucleation.- Bubble dynamics.- Hydrodynamic
cavitation.- Cavitation erosion.- Cardiovascular
cavitation.- Cavitation in other non-newtonian
biological fluids.},
doi = {10.1007/978-3-642-15343-3},
isbn = {9783642153426},
url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-15343-3 http://
link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-15343-3{\_}7},
}
@article{Claudon2013,
author = {Claudon, M. and Dietrich, C. and Choi, B. and
Cosgrove, D. and Kudo, M. and Nols{\o}e, C. and
Piscaglia, F. and Wilson, S. and Barr, R. and
Chammas, M. and Chaubal, N. and Chen, M.-H. and
Clevert, D. and Correas, J. and Ding, H. and
Forsberg, F. and Fowlkes, J. and Gibson, R. and
Goldberg, B. and Lassau, N. and Leen, E. and
Mattrey, R. and Moriyasu, F. and Solbiati, L. and
Weskott, H.-P. and Xu, H.-X.},
journal = {Ultraschall der Medizin - Eur. J. Ultrasound},
pages = {11--29},
publisher = {Elsevier},
title = {{Guidelines and Good Clinical Practice
Recommendations for Contrast Enhanced Ultrasound
(CEUS) in the Liver – Update 2012}},
volume = {34},
year = {2012},
abstract = {Initially, a set of guidelines for the use of
ultrasound contrast agents was published in 2004
dealing only with liver applications. A second
edition of the guidelines in 2008 reflected changes
in the available contrast agents and updated the
guidelines for the liver, as well as implementing
some non-liver applications. Time has moved on, and
the need for international guidelines on the use of
CEUS in the liver has become apparent. The present
document describes the third iteration of
recommendations for the hepatic use of contrast
enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) using contrast specific
imaging techniques. This joint WFUMB-EFSUMB
initiative has implicated experts from major leading
ultrasound societies worldwide. These liver CEUS
guidelines are simultaneously published in the
official journals of both organizing federations
(i.e., Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology for WFUMB
and Ultraschall in der Medizin/European Journal of
Ultrasound for EFSUMB). These guidelines and
recommendations provide general advice on the use of
all currently clinically available ultrasound
contrast agents (UCA). They are intended to create
standard protocols for the use and administration of
UCA in liver applications on an international basis
and improve the management of patients worldwide.},
doi = {10.1055/s-0032-1325499},
issn = {0172-4614},
language = {English},
url = {http://www.umbjournal.org/article/S0301562912005431/
fulltext http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23137926 http://
www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0032-1325499},
}
@inproceedings{Rognin2008,
author = {Rognin, N. G. and Frinking, P. and
Costa, M. and Arditi, M.},
booktitle = {2008 IEEE Ultrason. Symp.},
pages = {1690--1693},
publisher = {IEEE},
title = {{In-vivo perfusion quantification by contrast
ultrasound: Validation of the use of linearized video
data vs. raw RF data}},
year = {2008},
doi = {10.1109/ULTSYM.2008.0413},
isbn = {978-1-4244-2428-3},
url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4803409/},
}
@article{Barnett1994,
author = {Barnett, S. B. and {Ter Haar}, G. R. and Ziskin, M. C. and
Nyborg, W. L. and Maeda, K. and Bang, J.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {205--218},
publisher = {Elsevier},
title = {{Current status of research on biophysical effects of
ultrasound}},
volume = {20},
year = {1994},
abstract = {This overview of bioeffects of ultrasound presents
some key aspects of selected papers dealing with
biophysical end-points. Its purpose is to establish a
basis for exposure and dosimetric standards for
medical ultrasonic equipment. It is intended to
provide essential background resource material for
the medical/scientific community, and more
specifically for scientific working groups. This
document was prepared by members of the Safety
Committee of the World Federation for Ultrasound in
Medicine and Biology. It was produced as a resource
document in response to a request for information by
Working Group 12 (Ultrasound exposure parameters) of
the International Electrotechnical Commission
Technical Committee 87, Ultrasonics. IEC TC 87, WG12
is the working group responsible for generating
international standards for the classification of
equipment by its acoustic fields based on safety
thresholds. Our paper is intended to update and
supplement information on the thermal mechanism
provided in the publication, “WFUMB Symposium on
Safety and Standardisation in Medical Ultrasound:
Issues and Recommendations Regarding Thermal
Mechanisms for Biological Effects of Ultrasound”
(WFUMB 1992). It also provides an overview of trends
in research into nonthermal mechanisms as a
preliminary to the next WFUMB Symposium on Safety of
Medical Ultrasound when this subject will be examined
in detail by a select group of international experts.
The WFUMB-sponsored workshop will take place in
Utsunomiya, Japan during 11–15th July, 1994. The
purpose of the meeting is to evaluate the scientific
literature and to formulate internationally accepted
recommendations on the safe use of diagnostic
ultrasound that may be endorsed as official policy of
the WFUMB. It should be noted that the current
publication is not intended for review or endorsement
as an official WFUMB document. It is produced as a
scientific paper by individuals who are members of
the WFUMB Safety Committee, and it therefore
represents the opinions of the authors. Nevertheless,
during the preparation of this document,
contributions were received from members of the
International Electrotechnical Commission Technical
Committee 87 as well as many other individual
experts, and the authors sincerely acknowledge their
support.},
doi = {10.1016/0301-5629(94)90060-4},
issn = {03015629},
url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/
0301562994900604},
}
@article{Holland1989,
author = {Holland, C. K. and Apfel, R. E.},
journal = {IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control},
pages = {204--208},
title = {{An improved theory for the prediction of
microcavitation thresholds}},
volume = {36},
year = {1989},
doi = {10.1109/58.19152},
issn = {0885-3010},
url = {http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/19152/},
}
@article{AiumS72000,
journal = {J. Ultrasound Med.},
author = {{American Institute of Ultrasound in Medicine}},
pages = {143--8, 154--68},
publisher = {NIH Public Access},
title = {{Section 7--discussion of the mechanical index and
other exposure parameters.}},
volume = 19,
year = 2000,
abstract = {There have been long-term efforts to identify a
threshold pressure for the onset of inertial
cavitation under conditions relevant to ultrasound in
medicine. Before the introduction of the output
display standard [AIUM/NEMA, 1992a], quantities such
as the spatial peak pulse average intensity
(I(SPPA)), and, earlier, Im, the spatial peak
intensity averaged over the largest half-cycle, were
used to give a measure of the potential of a
cavitation-based bioeffect due to an acoustic field.
Relatively early in the Output Display Standard
development effort, the Food and Drug Administration
indicated a need for a superior indicator for the
potential for cavitation-related bioeffects,
initiating a search for such an index. The following
paragraphs give an outline of the steps used to
develop the Mechanical Index, its relevance as a
potential bioeffects indicator, and some information
on other exposure parameters involved in bioeffects
research.},
issn = {0278-4297},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10680619 http://
www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/
articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC2000332},
}
@article{Apfel1991,
author = {Apfel, R. E. and Holland, C. K.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {179--85},
publisher = {Elsevier},
title = {{Gauging the likelihood of cavitation from
short-pulse, low-duty cycle diagnostic ultrasound.}},
volume = {17},
year = {1991},
abstract = {Although no deleterious effects form diagnostic
ultrasound have been reported in epidemiologic
studies and surveys of widespread clinical usage
(Ziskin and Petitti 1988), the conditions for the
onset of transient cavitation must be investigated in
the total evaluation of potential risks associated
with diagnostic ultrasound applications. An extension
of the results from the approximate theory developed
by Holland and Apfel (1989) is applied in this paper
to a population of nuclei to predict the onset of
cavitation in host fluids with physical properties
similar to those of biological fluids. From this
analysis and from results of recent in vitro
cavitation experiments, an index is developed which
can gauge the likelihood of substantial microbubble
growth in the presence of short-pulse, low-duty cycle
diagnostic ultrasound.},
issn = {0301-5629},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2053214},
}
@article{FDA1997,
author = {FDA},
journal = {Rockville, MD Cent. Devices Radiol. Heal. US Food
Drug Adm.},
title = {{Information for manufacturers seeking marketing
clearance of diagnostic ultrasound systems and
transducers}},
year = {1997},
}
@article{OBrien1997a,
author = {O'Brien, W. D. and Zachary, J. F.},
journal = {IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control},
pages = {473--485},
title = {{Lung damage assessment from exposure to pulsed-wave
ultrasound in the rabbit, mouse, and pig}},
volume = {44},
year = {1997},
abstract = {The principal motivation of the study was to assess
experimentally the question: "Is the MI (Mechanical
Index) an equivalent or better indicator of
nonthermal bioeffect risk than I(SPPA.3) (derated
spatial peak, pulse average intensity)?" To evaluate
this question, the experimental design consisted of a
reproducible biological effect in order to provide a
quantitative assessment of the effect. The specific
biological effect used was lung damage and the
species chosen was the rabbit. This work was
initiated, in part, by a study in which lung
hemorrhage was observed in 7-week old C3H mice for
diagnostic-type, pulsed-wave ultrasound exposures,
and, therefore, 6- to 7-week old C3H mice were used
in this study as positive controls. Forty-seven adult
New Zealand White male rabbits were exposed to a wide
range of ultrasound amplitude conditions at center
frequencies of 3 and 6 MHz with all temporal exposure
variables held constant. A calibrated, commercial
diagnostic ultrasound system was used as the
ultrasound source with output levels exceeding, in
some cases, permissible FDA levels. The MI was shown
to be at least an equivalent, and in some cases, a
better indicator of rabbit lung damage than either
the I(SPPA.3) or p(r.3) (derated peak rarefactional
pressure), thus answering the posed question
positively. Further, in situ exposure conditions were
estimated at the lung pleural surface (PS); the
estimated in situ I(SPPA.PS) and p(r.PS) exposure
conditions tracked lung damage no better than
I(SPPA.3) and p(r.3), respectively, whereas the
estimated in situ MI(PS) exposure condition was a
slightly poorer predictor of lung damage than MI.
Finally, the lungs of six adult crossbred pigs were
exposed at the highest amplitude exposure levels
permitted by a diagnostic ultrasound system (to
prevent probe damage) at both frequencies; no lung
damage was observed which suggests the possibility of
a species dependency biological effect.},
doi = {10.1109/58.585132},
issn = {0885-3010},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18244145 http://
ieeexplore.ieee.org/lpdocs/epic03/
wrapper.htm?arnumber=585132},
}
@article{Miller2012,
author = {Miller, D. L.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {1476--1482},
publisher = {Elsevier Ltd},
title = {{Induction of Pulmonary Hemorrhage in Rats During
Diagnostic Ultrasound}},
volume = {38},
year = {2012},
abstract = {The induction of pulmonary hemorrhage by pulsed
ultrasound was discovered over 20 years ago. This
phenomenon may pose a risk of patient lung injury,
particularly for point of care pulmonary ultrasound.
A diagnostic ultrasound machine (HDI 5000; Philips
Healthcare, Andover MA USA) with 7.6 MHz (CL15-7)
linear array was used to image the right lung of
anesthetized rats in a warmed water bath. The image
showed rapid initiation and progression of comet tail
artifacts across the lung image for an on-screen
mechanical index (MI) of 0.9, which corresponded to a
pulmonary hemorrhage in the lung. Groups of rats were
scanned at a range of MI settings and a threshold was
located at an MI of about 0.44. This finding
indicated a greater sensitivity to pulmonary
ultrasound than was expected, based on previous
results. Further research is needed to understand
this phenomenon and to develop safety guidelines for
sonographers.},
doi = {10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2012.04.004},
issn = {1879-291X},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22698500 http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301562912002165},
}
@article{Tarantal1994a,
author = {Tarantal, A. F. and Canfield, D. R.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {65--72},
title = {{Ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage in the monkey}},
volume = {20},
year = {1994},
abstract = {Studies with the mouse have shown that lung
hemorrhage can result from exposure to ultrasound at
a peak pressure of ∼1 MPa at 4 MHz (Mechanical
Index [MI] ∼0.5). In order to determine whether a
comparable outcome could occur in a larger animal
with characteristics similar to humans, studies were
performed with monkeys using a clinical scanner under
maximum output conditions (imaging + pulsed and color
Doppler; derated pr of 3.7 MPa [4.5 MPa, measured in
water], 4 MHz; MI ∼ 1.8) (N = 57). Monkeys ranged
in age from 1 day of life to 16 years with exposures
limited to the right lung lobes (5 min cranial, 5 min
caudal; N = 41 exposed, N = 12 sham-exposed controls,
N = 4 colony controls). Results showed that animals
ranging in age from 3 months to 5 years (mean age of
2.5 years) had a greater propensity for the
occurrence of multiple well-demarcated circular
hemorrhagic foci (0.1–1.0 cm), which were not
observed in either control group. These lesions were
characterized by marked congestion of alveolar
capillaries with accumulation of red blood cells
within the alveolar spaces, and were unassociated
with major vessels or respiratory bronchioles.
Further studies will be required in order to
determine the relevance of these findings to the
human, although it was concluded that
ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage in the monkey is
of a significantly lesser degree when compared to the
mouse.},
doi = {10.1016/0301-5629(94)90018-3},
issn = {03015629},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8197628 http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
0301562994900183 http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/
0301562994900183},
}
@article{Zachary2006,
author = {Zachary, J. F. and Blue, James P. and Miller, R. J. and
Ricconi, B. J. and Eden, J. G. and O'Brien, W. D.},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
pages = {1763--1770},
title = {{Lesions of ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage are
not consistent with thermal injury}},
volume = {32},
year = {2006},
abstract = {Thermal injury, a potential mechanism of
ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage, was studied by
comparing lesions induced by an infrared laser (a
tissue-heating source) with those induced by pulsed
ultrasound. A 600-mW continuous-wave CO2 laser
(wavelength ???10.6 ??m) was focused (680-??m
beamwidth) on the surface of the lungs of rats for a
duration between 10 to 40 s; ultrasound beamwidths
were between 310 and 930 ??m. After exposure, lungs
were examined grossly and then processed for
microscopic evaluation. Grossly, lesions induced by
laser were somewhat similar to those induced by
ultrasound; however, microscopically, they were
dissimilar. Grossly, lesions were oval, red to dark
red and extended into subjacent tissue to form a
cone. The surface was elevated, but the center of the
laser-induced lesions was often depressed.
Microscopically, the laser-induced injury consisted
of coagulation of tissue, cells and fluids, whereas
injury induced by ultrasound consisted solely of
alveolar hemorrhage. These results suggest that
ultrasound-induced lung injury is most likely not
caused by a thermal mechanism. (E-mail:
[email protected]). ?? 2006 World Federation for
Ultrasound in Medicine {\&} Biology.},
doi = {10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2006.06.012},
issn = {03015629},
}
@article{OBrien2000,
author = {O'Brien, W. D. and Frizzell, L. A. and
Weigel, Ronald M. and Zachary, J. F.},
journal = {J. Acoust. Soc. Am.},
pages = {1290--1297},
title = {{Ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage is not caused by
inertial cavitation}},
volume = {108},
year = {2000},
abstract = {In animal experiments, the pathogenesis of lung
hemorrhage due to exposure to clinical diagnostic
levels of ultrasound has been attributed to an
inertial cavitation mechanism. The purpose of this
article is to report the results of two experiments
that directly contradict the hypothesis that
ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage is caused by
inertial cavitation. Elevated hydrostatic pressure
was used to suppress the involvement of inertial
cavitation. In experiment one, 160 adult mice were
equally divided into two hydrostatic pressure groups
(0.1 or 1.1 MPa), and were randomly exposed to pulsed
ultrasound (2.8-MHz center frequency, 1-kHz PRF,
1.42-micros pulse duration, 10-s exposure duration).
For the two hydrostatic pressure groups (80 mice
each), 8 in situ peak rarefactional pressure levels
were used that ranged between 2.82 and 11.8 MPa (10
mice/group). No effect of hydrostatic pressure on the
probability of hemorrhage was observed. These data
lead to the conclusion that lung hemorrhage is not
caused by inertial cavitation. Also, the higher
hydrostatic pressure enhanced rather than inhibited
the impact of ultrasonic pressure on the severity
(hemorrhage area, depth, and volume) of lesions.
These counterintuitive findings were confirmed in a
second experiment using a 2 x 5 factorial design that
consisted of two ultrasonic pressure levels and five
hydrostatic pressure levels (100 mice, 10
mice/group). If inertial cavitation were the
mechanism responsible for lung hemorrhage, then
elevated hydrostatic pressures should have resulted
in less rather than more tissue damage at each
ultrasonic pressure level. This further supports the
conclusion that the pathogenesis of
ultrasound-induced lung hemorrhage is not caused by
inertial cavitation.},
doi = {10.1121/1.1287706},
issn = {00014966},
url = {http://scitation.aip.org/content/asa/journal/jasa/108/3/
10.1121/1.1287706},
}
@article{Raeman1997,
author = {Raeman, C. H. and Dalecki, D. and Child, S. Z. and
Meltzer, R. S. and Carstensen, E. L.},
journal = {Echocardiography},
pages = {553--557},
title = {{Albunex Does Not Increase the Sensitivity of the
Lung to Pulsed Ultrasound}},
volume = {14},
year = {1997},
doi = {10.1111/j.1540-8175.1997.tb00764.x},
issn = {0742-2822},
url = {http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1540-8175.1997.tb00764.x},
}
@article{Child1990,
author = {Child, S. Z. and Hartman, C. L. and Schery, L. A. and Carstensen, E. L.},
doi = {10.1016/0301-5629(90)90046-F},
journal = {Ultrasound Med. Biol.},
language = {English},
pages = {817--825},
pmid = {2095012},
publisher = {Elsevier},
title = {{Lung damage from exposure to pulsed ultrasound}},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/030156299090046F http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/030156299090046F http://www.umbjournal.org/article/030156299090046F/fulltext},
volume = {16},
year = {1990}
}
@article{Toulopoulos2011,
author = {Toulopoulos, Ioannis and Ekaterinaris, John A.},
doi = {10.1016/j.jcp.2011.04.008},
issn = {00219991},
journal = {J. Comput. Phys.},
pages = {5974--5995},
publisher = {Academic Press Professional, Inc.},
title = {{Artificial boundary conditions for the numerical solution of the Euler equations by the discontinuous galerkin method}},
url = {http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0021999111002324},
volume = {230},
year = {2011}
}
@article{Mercer1994,
author = {Mercer, R. R. and Russell, M. L. and Crapo, J. D.},
issn = {8750-7587},
journal = {J. Appl. Physiol.},
pages = {1060--6},
pmid = 7836104,
publisher = {American Physiological Society},
title = {{Alveolar septal structure in different species.}},
url = {http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7836104},
volume = 77,
year = 1994
}
@article{OBrien2004,
author = {O'Brien, W. D. and Simpson, D. G. and Frizzell, L. A. and
Zachary, J. F.},
journal = {Echocardiography},
pages = {417--422},